One of the most interesting features of lamaism is the organization of its hierarchy. Its summit is occupied by two lama popes, the one called daki-lama, i.e., ocean-priest, or priest as wide as the ocean—he resides at Potala, near Illassa—the other bearing the titles of fesho-lama, bogdo-lania, etc., and officially called pan-chhen rin po ebbe, literally, time right reverend great teacher-jewel" (i.e., precious teacher); he resides in the con vent at bKrit Shiss Limn po, near gShiss Ida rTse. In theory, both popes have the same rank and authority, in spiritual as well as in temporal matters; but, as the dalai lama possesses a much larger territory than the-other, lie is in reality much more power ful. Next in rank are the AlittittAItts, who may be compared to the Roman Catholic cardinals and archbishops. The third degree is that of the khubilghans or hobilghans —which Mongol name is more frequently given to them than the Thibetan ehhub----a translation of time Sanskrit bodhisattwa. Their number is very great. These three degrees represent the clergy that claims to be the incarnation of the Buddhistic saints. The dalai-lama and the pan-chhen were in their former lives the two chief dis ciples of the great lamaist reformer bTsong kha pa, who was an incarnation of the Bodhisattwa Amitabha, or, as some will have it, of .31anjus'ri and Vajrapiin'i, and who is reputed to have founded, iti 1355 or 1357 of the Christian era, time present system of time Lama hierarchy. The khutuktns were, in their prior existences, other Buddhistic saints of very great renown; and the khubilghans are those reborn hosts of saintly patrons whom the temples and convents of lamaism possess iu boundless numbers. Up to the end of last century, the clergy of these various classes determined the choice of the children into whose bodies the souls of their departed members had migrated. At present, however, it seems that the emperor of China exercises a paramount influence on the discovery of those transmigrations,—or, in other words, on the filling up of cleri cal posts—and there can be no doubt that his influence is supreme in the case of deter mining the election of the two highest functionaries of this theocracy. In order to ascertain the re-birth of a departed lama, various means are relied upon, Sometimes the deceased had, before his death, confidentially mentioned to his friends where and in which family he would reappear, or his will contained intimations to this effect. In most instances, however, the sacred books and the official astrologers are consulted on the subject; and if the dalai-lama dies, it is the duty of the pan-chhen to interpret the tradi tions and oracles; whereas, if the latter dies, the dalai-lama renders him the simne ser vice. The proclamation of so great an event, however, as the metempsychosis of a dalai-lama or pan-chhenis preceded by a close examination of the child that claims to be in possession of the soul of either of these personages. The reborn arch-saint, usually a boy four or five years old, is questioned as to his previous career; Looks, garments, and other articles, used and not used by the deceased are placed before him, to point out those which belonged to him in his former life. But however satisfactory his answers be, they do not yet suffice. Various little bells, required at the daily devotions
of the lama, are put, before the boy, to select that which he did use when he was time dalai-lama or pan-chhen. "But where is my own favorite bell?" the child exclaims, after having searched in vain; and this question is perfectly justified; for, to test the veracity of the reborn saint, this particular bell had been withheld from him. Now, however, there can be no doubt as to the dalai-lama or pan-chhen being bodily before them: the believers fall on their knees, and the lamas who successfully performed all these frauds join them in announcing the momentous fact.
Besides these three classes of the higher clergy—representing the incarnate existences of departed saints, and chosen, therefore, without regard to merit, amongst the children of privileged families—lamaism possesses a lower clergy, which, having no claim to incarnate holiness, recruits its ranks on the principle of merit and theological profi ciency. It has four orders: the pupil or novice, who enters the order generally in his seventh or ninth year; the assistant priest; the religious mendicant; and the teacher, or abbot. To these may be added two academical or theological degrees, and also two dignities, conferred by the sovereign lam:is on those doctors who have distinguished themselves by extraordinary sanctity or learning. All the members of these orders must make the vow of celibacy, and by far the greatest number of them live in convents. A lamaist convent, elGon pa, consists of a temple, which forms its center, and of a number of buildings connected with the temple, and appropriated to the meeting-rooms, the library, refectory, dwellings, and other spiritual and worldly wants of the monks. At the head of the convent is a khubilghan, or an abbot, the latter being elected by the chapter, and appointed by the dalai-lama, or the provincial khubilghan. In addition to these orders of monks and convents, lamaisin has likewise its nuns and nunneries.
The lamaist bible bears the name of &KW eel. (pronounced kanjur)—i.e., "transla tion of the words," seil., of the Buddha. It contains not less than 1083 works, which in some editions fill 102 to 108 volumes in folio. It consists of the following sections: 1, `Dalthe (Sanskrit, Vinaya), or discipline: 2. SZwr pljin (Sans. Prajnaparamita), or philos ophy and metaphysics: 3. Phal damn (Sans. Buddhavata Sangha), or the doctrine of the Buddhas, their incarnations, etc. ; 4. dKon brTscgss (Sans. Ratnakfit'a), or the collection of precious things; 5. qu,Do ssDe (Sans. Satra), or the collection of Sutras; 6. Mjang 'doss (Sans. Nirvana), or the liberation from worldly pains; 7. rlijud (Sans. Tautras), or incantations, etc. Besides this mass of works, there is is very voluminous collection, the /Ks Tan 'jar, or the translation of the doctrine, in 225 vols. in folio; but it does not seem to possess canonical authority.
The oldest history of Lamaism is shrouded in darkness. For its growth and develop ment under the Mongol and Manju dynasties, see the article TIIIEET.—The best work on lamaism is Die Tanzaische Ifierarellie send Kirehe, von Karl Friedrich Koeppen 1859). See also Hue, Souvenirs d'un Voyage dans in Tartarie, le Tibet et la Chine (Paris, 1852); and Karl Ritter's Erdkande (vol. iv.).