Literature.—The extraordinary influence which the reli,gioh of the Hebrews has exer cised on Christian and Mohammedan nations has given a universal significance to their ancient literature. In antiquity and credibility, in the religiousness of its form and the vigor of its poetry, it surpasses the literature of any other pre-Christian people, and thus constitutes both the most remarkable monument and the most authentic source of the early history and spiritual development of the human race. It is true, however, that only a comparatively scanty portion of it lots come down to the present day, and even the con tents of whatis extant have by no means remained unaltered in the lapse of ages. It is quite certain that the Hebrews, in the earliest times, only engraved or cut out on stone, metal, or wood what is said to have been executed in writing; nor is there any trace of a material adapted for the record of lengthened compositions before the period of David, and even then the writing of books was still a matter of rare occurrence. Besides, sev eral writings of the Hebrews, held to be of ancient date, arc believed to betray a later origin than is assigned to them by their contents, their mode of representation, and -the- character of the language; so that, in truth, we possess nothing which, in its original shape, reaches further back than the above-mentioned age. Such being the case, we must recognize not only the internal arrangement, but a good deal also of the contents of the Hebrew writings, as a later elaboration. That criticism. has discovered, as it believes, here and there traces of much later hands than those to whom tradition ascribes the authorship of the particular works, does not necessarily always throw disci edit on the incidents narrated, nor destroy. the value of that peculiar spirit by which they are characterized.
The composition of the extant works in Hebrew literature proper would, on this view, extend over a period of nearly 900 years—viz., from the times of David to those of the Maccabees. This period was preceded by a preparatory one of sagas, songs, fragment ary historical notices, inscriptions, laws, and probably also .priestly registers. The nature and contents of the particular writings are determined by the changing of the people, who were at first strong and flourishing; then disrupted and weakened; then held in subjection by Assyrian, Egyptian, Babylonian, Persian, Greek, and Syrian rulers; and. finally, once more independent under native princes. Nevertheless, the prevalent idea—the basis, so to speak, of the whole Hebrew literature, looked at from the merely human point of view—is a passionate enthusiasm for independence and for the preservation of a nationality founded on their law and history; hence its patriotism is of a profoundly religious character. The law and the doctrine are the " word of God "; the Hebrews arc the " people of God," his " chosen people"; their fortunes are, in quite a special sense, " providences7; and their poetry has God or the nation for its constant theme. In a certain sense, therefore, as we might expect, all the productions of the Hebrew muse show a marked similarity to each other; still they can be arranged, accord ing to form and contents. under the five heads—law, prophecy, history, lyric poetry, and speculation. (For a special account of these, see the articles on the separate books of the Old Testament; also BIBLE, PENTATEUCH, etc.) The same epoch in which took place the transition from Hebraism to Judaism—the epoch of the captivity—was also that which marked the commencement of Jewish literature, properly so called. Founded on the earlier and more creative Hebrew, and for the most part written in the same lan guage, it is yet qnalitied by the presence of religious conceptions borrowed from the Persians, of Greek wisdom, Homan law, and, at a later period, of Arabic poetry and philosophy, and of European science, though everything is strictly subordinated to the great ideas of the ancient faith. Since the return from exile, the Jewish—also, bat
erroneously, called the has,without the slightest external encourage ment, actively taken part in the cultivation of the human mind; and in the results of this activity, which are still far from being duly appreciated, there lie concealed the richest treasures of centuries. Jewish literature has been divided chronologically into nine periods.
The first period extends to 143 B.C. After the return from exile, the Jewish people naturally enough became animated by an intense nationality of feeling; they had nearly lost name, country, life; and now that these were restored again, they strenuously resolved never more to place them in jeopardy. Guided by Ezra, the intellect of the nation began to exhibit surpassing reverence for the Pentateuch and the prophets. Expositions to the earlier history (neidrushini),.g.s well as Gi cek translations, were executed, and several of the haalographa—such as particular psalms, the so called Proverbs of Solomon, Ecclesiastes, the books of Chronicles. portions of Ezra and Nehe miah—were written. To this period also, if to any, must belong the uncertain perfor mances of the great synagogue (q.v.), a body the existence of 'which has, as indicated above, been doubted by some early critics, but which is now established beyond any doubt. To this the work of completing the canon of the Old Testament is chiefly ascribed. Towards its close (190-170 p.c.) several writers appear in proprid persona, as, for instance, Sirach and Aristobulns. The doctors of whom the great synagogue chiefly consisted were called soferim (scribes), and the Aramaic finally became the popu lar dialect of Palestine.
The second period extends from 143 B.C. to 135 A.D. The Midrash (q.v.). or the inquiry into the meaning of the sacred writings, was divided into Halucha (q.v.) and Hagada ; the former considered the improvement of the law. with a view to practical results; the latter, the essence of the religious and historical interpretations. At first, both were the oral deliverances of the soferim, but gradually written memorials made their appearance. The public interpretation of the Scripture in schools and synagogues, the independence of the sanhedrim, the strife of sects, and the influences of Alexandrian culture, furthered this development. To this period also belong various Greek, but not, as is still erroneously supposed by some, the written targunis or Aramaic versions of the Bible (see TAitoums), which sprang at a much later period from oral translations of the Pentateuch in the synagogues instituted after the return from the exile; further the whole of the Apocrypha (q.v.), and the earliest Christian writings, which are at least the pro ductions of men nurtured in the principles of Judaism, and which contain many traces of Judaistic culture, feeling, and faith. It was also characterized by the drawing up of prayers, scriptural expositions. songs, and collections of proverbs. The poet (not the prophet) Ezekiel, the author of the first book of the Maccabees, Jason, Josephus, Johannes (see above), are names specially worthy of mention; so also are the doctors of the oral law—Hillel (q.v.), Shamai, Jochanan-ben-Saccai, Gamaliel, Eleazar-ben-Hyrcan, Joshua-ben-Cliananja, Ishmael, Akiba, and others of like eminence. Rabbi (master), talmid chacham (disciple of wisdom), were titles of honor given to those expert in a knowledge of the law. Besides the Maccabean coins, Greek and Latin inscriptions belonging to this period are extant.