MAHMITD II., Sultan of Turkey, and younger son of sultan Abdul-Hamid, was b. .July 20, 1785, and on the deposition of his brother, Mustafa IV., by Batiraktar, pasha of Ruschuk, was raised to the throne, July 28,1808. Batiraktar became his grand vizier, :and vigorously aided him in his attempts to reform the constitution of the Turkish army. But the Janizaries, emboldened by their successful opposition to the same .attempt on the part of Selim III., rose in rebellion, and the niurder of the vizier put a .stop for the present to the carrying out of any military reforms. Mahmud was also attacked by the rebels, but he secured his life and throne by the destruction of all the .other members of the royal house of Ostaan. The war with Russia now commenced •vigorously; but after a conflict of three years' duration, which completely prostrated the strength of Turkey, peace was concluded at Bucharest (q.v.). The daring and ,energetic Mahmud now applied himself to the subjugation of the semi-independent •pashas of the outlying provinces, and to the promotion of radical reforms in all depart ments of the government. The rebellion of the Wahabis was crushed through the instru mentality of Ibrahim Pasha in 1818, and Ali Pasha (q.v.), " the lion of Janina," was .overthrown in 1822. Greece revolted in 1821, and its independence was secured by the battle of Navarino in 1827, but it was not recognized as a separate kingdom by "Turkey till April, 1830. During the progress of the Greek revolution, Malimud had amen steadily though secretly maturing his plans of military reform, and in June, 1826, the success of his schemes was crowned by the destruction of the Janizaries (q.v.). The .consequent confusion into which Turkey was thrown was immediately taken advantage .of by Russia for obtaining fresh concessions. Mahmud, however, despite these inter
ruptions, proceeded with iron resolutions in those plans of reform which he judged essential to the stability of the empire; and the disastrous terrnination of the succeeding war with Russia (1828-29), far frona interfering with his projects, only stimulated him •to renewed exertion. The successful revolt of the Greeks, and the late triumph of the Russians, together with the disaffection manifested by the Christian population of 'Turkey, excited in the ambitious mind of Mehemed Ali, pasha of Egypt, the desire for independence. See MEITEMED ALr. The war which ensued was from first to last in favor of the Egyptians; but the intervention of Russia compelled both parties to agree to a treaty (1833) which was satisfactory to neither. Mahmud was now forced to grant fresh_ concessions to his "good friend and ally" the czar, by the treaty of ITnkiar Skelessi (q.v.), July 8.1833, and by another treaty in the following year. He was again at liberty to pursue his reforms in the civil administration, the principal improvements being the modification and readjustment of the more oppressive taxes, the formation of a militia on the principle adopted by England, the establishment of schools of anatomy and painting, increased privileges to Frankish merchants, and the abolition of the export duty on grain, measures of sound policy, which tended largely to consolidate the new-born prosperity of Turkey. In 1838 he concluded with Great Britain a com mercial treaty, which both strengthened the connection between the two nations and advanced their mercantile interests. In 1839 he renewed the war with Mehemed Ali, but died before its conclusion, July 1, 1839, after an eventful reign of 31 years.