In February, 1876, the six great Eu ropean Powers proposed a scheme of reform which was largely accepted by the Sultan. On May 30 Sultan Abdul Aziz was deposed. His nephew, Murad V., succeeded him, but was also deposed and followed, Aug. 31, by his brother, Abdul-Hamid II. On Jan. 18, 1877, the Grand Council of Turkey refused all in terference by the European Powers and Russia declared war on April 21. Tur key was badly beaten and an armistice was signed in February, 1878. The terms of the treaty of peace at San Stephano (March 3) were subsequently modified at the Congress of Berlin. On April 19, 1897, Turkey was forced by Greece to declare war. The war was short and ended in Turkey's favor on June 3, Greece agreeing to pay a war indemnity of $2,000,000.
In 1898 Crete was taken in charge by the Great Powers and the island was handed over for government to Greece.
In the first decade of the 20th cen tury, Turkey seemed on the point of collapse. There were revolts in Arabia and conditions of anarchy prevailed in Albania and Macedonia. In the latter country conditions led to foreign inter vention, and the Sultan, much against his will, acceded to new reform schemes, which, however, were never carried out. In the meantime, the public debt was in creasing and the railways, mines, and banks were falling into the hands of the foreign capitalists. Just as Turkey ap peared on the point of collapse, a move ment for the rejuvenation of the country was started by a body called the Young Turks, who for many years had been working to bring about reform measures. On July 23, 1908, the central body, called the Committee of Union and Progress, headed by Enver Pasha, proclaimed the restoration of the constitution of 1876. An attack on Constantinople was threat ened and the Sultan, greatly terrified, issued a decree restoring parliamentary government. Taking advantage of these disturbances, Austria, in October, 1908, annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina and at the same time Ferdinand of Bulgaria proclaimed the independence of that country. The new Turkish Government was obliged to agree. Albania became still more turbulent in 1909, and there were serious disturbances in Arabia and Macedonia. A counter-revolution started which, however, was promptly sup pressed. Parliament now voted to de pose Abdul- Hamid and placed him prac tically in captivity near Saloniki. His brother, Mohammed V., was made Sul tan in his place. Measures were now taken on a large scale to Ottomanize the Turkish empire. The Bulgarians, Greeks, and Serbians in Macedonia bitterly resented this, and Greece, Bul garia, and Serbia began to draw more closely together with the object of protecting their nationals in Macedonia. In 1911 Italy seized Tripoli and Cyrenaica. This was followed by a war between Turkey and Italy. Peace was not concluded until 1912, when Italy gained a large territory, includ ing Tripoli and Cyrenaica. During the
summer of 1912, the Balkan states formed the Balkan League, which resulted in the Balkan War. See BALKAN WARS. The outcome of this struggle was the loss of all Turkish possessions in Europe, except Constan tinople, Adrianople, and a small ad jacent territory.
German influence had become strong in Turkey during these events. The Turkish army was armed and drilled by Germans, and the German Govern ment secured the greater share of new concessions, including the Bagdad rail road. Germany's sympathy was shown toward Turkey during the Balkan War. It was no occasion for surprise, then, when Turkey chose to side with Ger many and Austria against the Allied Powers in the World War.
The Turkish Government, indeed, in the first days of the war, declared its neutrality, but mobilization of her mili tary forces at once began. The com mander-in-chief of the Turkish armies was Enver Pasha, who had been edu cated in Germany and whose ideals were those of his German associates. The German general, Liman von Sanders, had brought about the reorganization of the Turkish army on a modern basis. On the declaration of war between Ger many and Russia, Turkey at once closed the Dardanelles and the Bosporus to all shipping, planting mines at the entrances. This effectively bottled up the Russian fleets in the Black Sea.
On Oct. 30, 1914, Russia declared war against Turkey, and the Sultan at once declared war against Russia, France and England. On Nov. 17, Great Britain formally declared a pro tectorate over Egypt. The Sultan en deavored to foment a "Holy War" against the Allies, but this met with little response outside of the Turkish empire.
The first military operations of im rnrtance took place in the Caucasus where a Turkish army advanced into Persia. This force was defeated by Russians on Jan. 30, 1915. There were other Russian successes in Persia and in the Caucasus. The main opera tions, however, were carried on in Trans caucasia, where, on Dec. 26, 1914, a great Turkish army was decisively beaten by Russian forces, and for some months Turkey was unable to carry on further operations in this field. The campaign was, however, conducted for the purpose of capturing the Suez Canal, in January, 1916. This was frustrated by prompt British resistance which drove back the Turkish forces, leaving the British in possession of the canal. Other operations early in the war oc curred in the Persian Gulf. The British disembarked a force near Basra, which the Turks evacuated on their approach. Here the British prepared a base camp for an attack upon Bagdad, about 300 miles distant. 50 miles above Basra, the Turkish army had been mobilized. The British attacked this point and finally succeeded in defeating the Turk ish army, which surrendered. The British then intrenched themselves, having cut off Turkey from any advance on India.