After the short reign of Michael 0. (1054-1057) Isaac Comnenus, the first of the Comnenian dynasty, ascended the throne, but soon after became a monk. The three chief emperors of this dynasty were Alexius, John, and Manuel Corn nenus. During the reign of Alexius I. (1081-1118) the Crusades commenced. His son, John II., and grandson, Manuel I., fought with success against the Turks, whose progress also was consid erably checked by the Crusades. The Latins, the name given to the French, Venetian, etc., crusaders, now forced their way to Constantinople (1204), con quered the city, and retained it. together with most of the European territories of the Empire. Baldwin, Count of Flan ders, was made Emperor; Boniface, Marquis of Montferrat, obtained Thes salonica as a kingdom, and the Vene tians acquired a large extent of terri tory. Theodore Lascaris seized on the Asiatic provinces, in 1206 made Nice (Nicma) the capital of the Empire, and was at first more powerful than Bald win. Neither Baldwin nor his sueces sors, Henry, Peter, and Robert of Cour tenay, were able to secure the tottering throne. John, Emperor of Nice, con quered all the remaining Byzantine ter ritory except Constantinople, and at last, in 1261, Michael Palceologus, King of Nice, conquered Constantinople, and thus overthrew the Latin dynasty.
Thus again the vast but exhausted Byzantine Empire was united under Michael Palwologus, founder of the last Byzantine dynasty. Internal disturb ances and wars with the Turks disturbed the reigns of his descendants. Androni cus II. and Andronicus III. For a time the CantaCuzenes shared the crown with John Palmologus, son of Andronicus III.; but in 1355 John again became sole Emperor. In his reign the Turks first obtained a firm footing in Europe, and conquered Gallipoli (1357). In 1361 Sultan Amurath took Adrianople. Ba jazet conquered almost all the European provinces except Constantinople, and was pressing it hard when Timur's in vasion of the Turkish provinces saved Constantinople for this time (1402). Manuel then recovered his throne, and regained some of the lost provinces from the contending sons of Bajazet. To him succeeded his son John, Palxologus II. (1425), whom Amurath II. stripped of all territories except Constantinople, and laid under tribute (1444). To the Em peror John succeeded his brother Con stantine Palmologus. With the assist
ance of his general Giustiniani, a Gen oese, tie withstood the superior forces of the enemy with fruitless courage, and fell in the defense of Constantinople, by the conquest of which (May 29, 1453) Mohammed II. put an end to the Greek or Byzantine Empire. The Byzantine Empire, which thus lasted for over 1,000 years, was of immense service to the world in stemming the tide of Moham medan advance, in spreading Christi anity and civilization, and in maintain ing a regular system of government, law, and policy in the midst of surround ing barbarism.
BYZANTIIINi, a city on the Thracian Bosporus, founded by emigrants from Megara in 667 B. C. It rose rapidly to importance as a seat of commerce, was subject to the Persians (515-478 B. C.), was freed by Pausanias, and was alter nately Athenian and Lacedmmonian dur ing the Peloponnesian War. Thrasybu lus expelled the Spartans in 390, and the city long enjoyed a kind of independence. It was taken by Severus in 196 A. D., and in 330, under the name of New Rome or Constantinople, it was made the metrop olis of the Roman Empire.
C, in Anglo-Saxon, was taken directly from the Latin alphabet, the source, it is believed, whence it has passed into various languages. In English words immediately derived from Anglo-Saxon, the c of the Anglo-Saxon often becomes k in English, as A. S. cyng=Eng. king; A. S. cyn=Eng. kin, or kindred. Some times the A. S. c becomes q in English, as A. S. Cluen=Eng. queen. At others it is changed into ch, as A. S. cilc1=Eng. child. In modern English c has two leading values. Before i and e it is sounded as s (examples: certain, cinc ture), and before a, o, and u as k (ex amples: cat, cost, curtly). It is mute before k, as trick.
C. As an initial is used: 1. In chronology: Chiefly for Christ, as B> C: (Before Christ).
2. In Music: For counter-tenor, or contralto.
3. In university degrees: For Civil, as D. C. L.=Doctor of Civil Law. C. As a symbol is used: 1. In numerals: For 100. Thus CII= 102, CC=200.
2. In chemistry: For the element car bon, of which it is also the initial letter.
3. In music: (1) For the first note of the diatonic scale, corresponding to do of the Italians.
(2) For the natural major mode, that in which no sharps or flats are em ployed.
(3) For common or four-crochet time.