Cxsar now returned to northern Italy, that he might be able to communicate more easily and securely with his friends at Rome. That city was gradu ally becoming more anarchic, the evils of weak government more apparent; the hour for decisive action seemed to be approaching, when there broke out a general rebellion of the Gauls, headed by a young warrior of the Arverni named Vercingetorix. It was in the dead of winter when the news came to Cesar. Without delay he crossed the Cevennes mountains, though they were covered with snow to the depth of six feet. The struggle with Vercingetorix was a severe one; at Gergovia, the capi tal of the Arverni, Caesar was defeated, and for a time his affairs seemed in a desperate condition. But he managed to unite his forces, and at the siege of Alesia (52 B. C.) crushed the whole hosts of the Gauls. Vercingetorix sur rendered himself, and the independence of Gaul was at on end. Only some iso lated tribes continued to resist; and next year (51 B. C.) Caesar proceeded to quell them. This he successfully ac complished and in addition reduced the whole of Aquitania.
In the meantime Pompey had defi nitely gone over to the senatorial party. Crassus had fallen in Asia in 52 B. C., and thus Cxsar and Pompey were left alone, the two most powerful men of Rome. Pompey was jealous of his younger rival. His natural tendency was to adhere to the old aristocratic party. He now cast in his lot with it, and it was decided to break the power of Cxsar. With this view it was neces sary to deprive him of his command in Gaul. During the long maneuvering which followed, Caesar acted with the greatest moderation, and managed to throw upon his opponents the responsi bility of violating the law. Under the direction of Pompey the senate sum marily called upon him to resign the command and disband his army. The tribunes Mark Antony and Cassius put their veto on this motion; but they were violently driven out of the senate-cham ber, and fearing for their lives, they fled to Caesar's camp. Things had now come to an extremity. The senate in trusted Pompey with the duty of pro viding for the safety of the state. His forces far outnumbered Caesar's legions, but they were scattered over the prov inces of the empire, and the Italian levy was unprepared. In face of an enemy of such marvellous promptitude and energy as Julius Cxsar this dila toriness was fatal. Perceiving that the time for energetic action had at length arrived, Cresar harangued his victorious troops, who were willing to follow him anywhere; crossed the Rubicon (a small stream which separated his province from Italy proper), and moved swiftly southward. Pompey fled to Brundu sium, pursued by Caesar, but contrived to reach Greece in safety, March 17, 49 B. c. The Italian cities everywhere opened their gates to the conqueror. In three months Cxsar was master of all Italy.
Caesar next subdued Pompey's legates in Spain, who were at the head of con siderable forces. On his return, he took Massilia, where he learned that he had been appointed dictator of the Republic —a function which at this time he re tained only for 11 days, but these were honorably distinguished by the passing of several humane enactments. Pom pey, now thoroughly alive to the magni tude of his danger, had gathered in Egypt, Greece, and the East, a pow erful army, while his fleet swept the sea. Csar, however, crossing the Adri atic at an unexpected season, made a rush for Dyrrhachium, where Pompey's stores were; but was nevertheless out stripped by his opponent. Pompey in
trenched his army on some high ground near the city, where he was beseiged by Caesar. The first encounter was favor able to Pompey, who drove back Csar's legions with much loss. The latter now advanced into Thessaly, followed by his exulting enemies. A second battle en sued on the plains of Pharsalia, Aug. 9, 48 B. c. The senatorial army was ut terly routed, and Pompey himself fled to Egypt, where he was murdered.
No sooner had the news reached Rome that Caesar was again appointed dic tator for a year, and consul for five years. He was invested with tribuni cian power for life, and with the right of holding all the magistratial comitia, except those for the election of the ple beian tribunes. He did not, however, return to Rome after the battle of Phar salia, but went to Egypt, then in a dis tracted condition on account of the dis putes regarding the succession. Out of love for Cleopatra (who subsequently bore him a son), he entered upon the "Alexandrine War," in which he was successful, and which he brought to a close in March, 47 B. C. He next over threw a son of Mithridates, near Zela, in Pontus, August 2 of the same year, and arrived in Rome in September. He was once more appointed dictator, and the property of Pompey was confiscated and sold. Before the close of the year he had set out for Africa. where his campaign against the Pompeian gener als, Scipio and Cato, was crowned with victory at the battle of Thapsus, April 6. 46 B. c. Cato committed suicide at Utica, and with such irresistible• celerity was the work of subjugation carried on, that by the end of the summer Caesar was once more in Rome. Now occurred that display of noble and wise gener osity for which Caesar may be regarded as truly great. He was not a man that could stoop to the vulgar atrocities of Marius or SuIla; he majestically de clared that henceforth be had no ene mies, that he would make no difference between Pompeians and Caesarians. His victories in Gaul, Egypt, Pontus, and Africa were celebrated by four great triumphs, during which the whole Ro man populace was feasted and feted by the magnificent liberality of the dictator.
Csar now proceeded with his schemes for the settlement of affairs at Rome. During the year 46 B. C. he conferred a benefit on Rome and on the world by the reformation of the calen dar, which had been greatly abused by the pontifical college for political pur poses. After quelling an insurrection which broke out in Spain, where Porn pey's sons, Cneius and Sextus, had col lected an army, he received the title of "Father of his Country," and also of imperator, was made dictator and prx feetus morum for life, and consul for 10 years; his person was declared sacred, and even divine; he obtained a body guard of knights and senators; his statue was placed in the temples; his portrait was struck on coins; the month Quintilis was called Julius in his honor, and on all public occasions he was per mitted to wear the triumphal robe. He proposed to make a digest of the whole Roman law for public use, to found libraries for the same purpose, to drain the Pontine Marshes, to enlarge the har bor of Ostia, to dig a canal through the Isthmus of Corinth, and to quell the in roads of the Barbarians on the E. fron tiers; but in the midst of these vast designs he was cut off by assassination on the Ides (15th) of March, 44 B. C. Of Cwsar's writings the "Commen taries" on the Gallic and Civil Wars have alone been preserved.