At the outbreak of the World War, Great Britain at once declared Egypt to be a British protectorate, thus ending the suzerainty of Turkey. Sir Arthur McMahon was appointed High Com missioner. Abbas Hilmi was removed as Khedive, and was succeeded by his with gunboats after the battle, Kitch ener found Captain Marchand holding Fashoda, which he had seized by order of the French Government. Under threats of war from England, Marchand was in November ordered to evacuate Fashoda.
In 1904, an agreement was made be tween France and Great Britain, by which France pledged itself to permit Great Britaiu a free hand in the occu pation of Egypt. A movement for Egyptian nationalism developed in the early part of the 20th century, and con tinued to grow in importance. The Nationalist party was formed with Mustapha Kemal as leader, and various conflicts with the English officials gave strength to the Nationalist movement.
father's brother, Hussein Kemal, who was made Sultan. The measures under taken and carried on by Lord Kitchener had proved remarkably beneficial. These included constitutional reforms, and ex tensive changes in the judicial proced ure.
The Suez Canal was one of the vital points of defense, At the outbreak of the war, ways and means were taken to strengthen it on the anticipation of a strong attack against it. These fears were realized. Turkish forces under took a campaign against the canal in January, 1915. They were commanded by German officers.. The attacks were repelled with great losses and the army under the Turks withdrew to Palestine. Although this prevented for a time at tacks en the canal, military operations continued and several important battles were fought. The chief of these was at Romani. The Turkish force was de feated by the English and Australian troops. Operations were carried on throughout this year under great diffi culties, and the Sinai desert was finally cleared of Turkish troops. During the progress of the war, the Egyptian Na tionalists continued to cause trouble and demanded permission to submit their claims to the British Government. In 1919 the Nationalists placed obstacles in the way of the formation of a new government. British officials were forced to deport the vice-president of the Assembly and three other leaders to Malta. This was followed by riots in several cities. In March, 1919, General Allenby, who had been appointed Special High Commissioner arrived in Cairo and at once released several revolutionists from prison and temporarily restored order. There were further outbreaks, but conditions had gradually readjusted themselves by the end of 1919. In
spring of 1920 a mission headed by Lord Milner was sent to Egypt for the pur pose of inquiring into conditions and recommending reforms. The Egyptian Nationalists had sent a delegation to the Peace Conference in Paris, but it was not given a hearing. The Milner mission concluded its work in April, 1920. It recommended several changes in the formation of government, includ ing the retention of the Sultan as titular head, and the return of a bicameral legislature. It recommended that the Upper House should consist of members partly elected directly and partly nomi nated, and the Lower House should be entirely elected. A sweeping thorough remodeling of the Egyptian Government and a sweeping reduction of British officials was advised. The Nationalists continued disturbances and several of their leaders were arrested in July for an attempt to assassinate the Premier.
Law and Justice.—There are 90 sum mary tribunals, 8 central courts and a Court of Appeals at Cairo. "Cantonal" Courts composed of villaye notables 2,360. By an act of 1905, serious offen ses, and by Act of 1910, press offenses, are tried at Central Courts.
Finances.—Revenue 1919-1920 (esti mated) 128,850,000. Expenses: 228, 850,000. In April, 1919, the sectional debt was £93,388,640. There is a Na tional bank at Cairo, an Agricultural bank, 8 Mortgage banks and 5 ordinary banks, one P. O. Savings bank and 12 rural.
Education. — Of indigenous schools, known as "Maktabs" there were in 1918 3,534. Teachers, 6,582, attendance, 209, 186. In 1919 under Government direc tion and of departments there were 275 schools. There are schools of law, mili tary, agriculture, veterinary, police, and for cadis; a reformatory for boys and one for girls. The Azhar University at Cairo for higher education is the great est Moslem institution of its kind in the world.
Agriculture.—In 1917 areas cultivable 7,932,077 feddans (=1.038 acre) cotton is the chief crop. 2,633,539 acres that could be reclaimed. In 1918, the wheat crop was 874,720 tons; barley 214,916 tons; and maize, millet and rice were also produced on a large scale. Cotton 5,019,689 gantars (=99.05 lbs.).
Commerce.—Merchandise (1918) iunports £51,155,306. Exports, 145,379,020. Imports from U. S. (1918) 1491,326. Exports Communication. — In March, 1919, Egypt had 2,339 miles of rails, double and single. There were 726 miles of privately owned roads, exclusive of Sudan to Khartoum R. R.-375 miles. Telegraph and telephone systems, 6,311 miles. Post-offices and stations 2,485.