Education.—A very large proportion of the population is illiterate. In 1910, the last date for which authoritative statistics are available, nearly 60 per cent. could neither read nor write. Edu cation is nominally obligatory, but the law is not strictly enforced. There are about 27,000 public schools and about 6,000 private schools. The total num ber of pupils is about 2,700,000. Public and primary schools are supported by the government, which spent in 1918 43,726,597 pesetas for educational pur poses. Secondary education is carried on in institutions or middle class schools, of which there must be at least one in every province. There are about 60 of these institutions, with about 55,000 pupils. There are 11 universities, which were attended by about 25,000 students. These universities are at Barcelona, Granada, Madrid, Murcia, Oviedo, Sala manca, Santiago, Seville, Valencia, Val ladolid, and Saragossa. In addition there is a medical school at Cadiz and one in the Canary Islands.
Army and Navy.—Military service is compulsory for a total period of 18 years. A general staff was established in 1916. The country is divided into 8 territorial districts, each under a cap tain-general. The peace strength of the army in 1920 was fixed at 216,649 men of all ranks. Of these, about 65,000 were in Morocco. The army is organ ized into 16 divisions, each including two brigades of infantry and one of artillery. There is a corps of aviators and the service in military aviation has been reorganized on a large scale. The navy consists of three dreadnoughts, one pre-dreadnought, and seven cruisers. There were in 1920, in addition to 13 destroyers, 26 modern torpedo boats, and 12 gun boats. A number of cruisers, destroyers, submarines, and other similar vessels were under con struction in 1921. The total strength of the navy is about 10,500 sailors and about 4,500 marines.
Government.—By the constitution of 1876 Spain is declared a constitutional monarchy, with executive power vested in the king, and the legislative power in the Cortes with the king. The Cortes consists of a Senate and Congress. The Senate is composed of three classes: Those who sit by right of birth or offi cial position, members nominated by the crown (these two classes not numbering more than 180 together), and 180 elected by the largest taxpayers of the kingdom and certain corporate bodies. The Congress contains 417 deputies, elected by citizens of 25 years of age who have enjoyed full civil rights in any municipality for two years. Voting is compulsory for males of 25 or over. Each province has its own parliament, and each commune its own elected ayun tamiento presided over by the alcalde, for municipal and provincial adminis tration.
People and Religion.—The people of Spain are of very mixed origin, the most ancient inhabitants, the Iberians (now represented probably by the Basques or Biscayans of the N. E.), being after ward mingled with Celts, Phoenicians, and Carthaginians, Roman colonists, Goths, Jews, and Arabs or Moors. They are generally of medium height and of spare habit, with black hair, dark eyes, and sallow complexion. Under the con stitution the state binds itself to main tain the Roman Catholic religion, but a restricted liberty of worship is permitted to Protestants, of whom, however, there are very few. There are nine arch bishops, the Archbishop of Toledo being primate. Houses for monks no longer exist, having been abolished by law in 1841.
History.—Spain was first known to the Phoenicians, subsequently to the Cartha ginians, and, in the 3d century B. C., to the Romans. It was completely subdued under Augustus, after which it enjoyed tranquillity for nearly 400 years. This state of peace was disturbed by the ir ruption of the Northern barbarians, the Suevi, the Vandals, and the Alani. Christianity was introduced about the end of the 6th century; the invasion of the Moors took place in the beginning of the 8th; and they overran the whole country except the Asturias. They were finally expelled in 1492. Under Charles V., Spain made a great figure in the general affairs of Europe. He reigned
40 years, and in 1556 abdicated in favor of his son, Philip II., who died in 1598 and bequeathed to his successor, Philip III., Belgium, Naples, Sicily, and Por tugal. Charles II., the last prince of the Austrian branch, reigned from 1665 to 1700; after which began the well-known war for the succession to the Spanish dominions, in which the claim of Austria was supported by the grand alliance against Louis XIV. Notwithstanding the opposition of the Allies, however, the grandson of Louis XIV. reigned in Spain, relinquishing the Belgic prov inces to the house of Austria. Philip V., the first king of the French line, had a long and turbulent reign. After him Ferdinand VI., a prudent prince, intro duced various reforms and maintained peace, but dying in 1759 his son, Charles III., went to war with Great Britain. Peace ensued in 1763 and continued till 1778, when Spain, at first neutral in the American War of Independence, was pre vailed on to take up arms against Eng land, and obtained, at the peace of 1783, the Floridas and the island of Minorca. Charles IV. succeeded to the crown in 1788, became soon after a party to the coalition against Republican France; but was, after Prussia, the first of the Great Powers to conclude a treaty of peace, in 1795. In little more than a year afterward, the cabinet of Spain joined its late opponent and declared war against England. The abdication of the royal family of Spain took place at Bay onne in May, 1808. It was followed by the general resistance of the inhabi tants, by the invasion of their country by Napoleon I., and by the subsequent expulsion of the French by the troops of Great Britain combined with those of Portugal and Spain. The dissatisfac tion and indignation excited by the ty rannical proceedings of Ferdinand led, in the beginning of 1820, to a revolu tion of great importance, by which the constitution of the Cortes, as estab lished in 1812, was restored, and such salutary restraints established on the power of the crown as seemed best cal culated for securing the rights of the people. In 1823 Spain was again in vaded by French troops under the Duke d'Angouleme, whose object was to put down the new government and to re store Ferdinand to absolute power. They penetrated the country without re sistance; and having laid siege to Cadiz, the king was given up to them, and afterward the town. In 1833, on the death of Ferdinand VII., the queen mother, Christina, was appointed queen-regent during the minority of her daughter Isabella, to whom, by his will, he bequeathed his throne. On this, Don Carlos, the late king's brother, laid claim to the crown, when a civil war which lasted till 1840 ensued. In that year the partisans of Don Carlos were finally de feated. The next event of importance was the contest between Espartero, the regent, and the Queen-Dowager Chris tina, for the supreme power during the minority of the queen. Espartero was successful from 1840 to 1843, but was compelled to flee before O'Donnell and Narvaez, and was not restored till 1847. Espartero's success obliged Christina to retire to France, whence she returned after his fall, Narvaez and the Modera dos having control of the government. Isabella was now declared of age, mar ried her cousin, Francis d'Assisi, and succeeded to the throne as Isabella II. During her reign the Liberals and Con servatives successively gained control of the government. The disputes finally ended in a successful revolt of the Lib erals, the queen being obliged to fly to France, and the throne being offered in 1870 to Amadeus, a son of Victor Eman uel. Finding his task too difficult, he resigned in 1873. A republic was now formed, with Castelar as its leading spirit, but it was soon brought to an end, and the throne was offered in 1874 to Alfonso, the young son of the exiled Queen Isabella. Alfonso XII. died in 1885; and on the birth of a posthumous son, May 17, 1886, the regency was intrusted to his widow, Christina. In 1902 this son came to the throne under the title of Alfonso XIII.