ever, being taken mostly from coins, are not of that very remote antiquity which we should desire to illustrate matters pertaining to the period of the It is important to observe that the mitre of the high-priest, which is also called a crown (1T3 Exod. xxxix. 3o), was of similar construction, if not shape, with the addition of the golden fillet or diadem. [Comp. Bahr, Symb. d. Ales. Ca lt. ii. to]. Similar also in construction and material, though not in form, was the ancient Persian crown, for which there is a distinct name in the book of Esther (i. 2 ; ii. 17 ; vi. 8), viz., -Inn keter, which was doubtless the cidaris or citaris (nlaapcs or nirapcs), the high cap or tiara, so often mentioned by the Greek historians. From the descriptions given of it, this seems to have been a somewhat conical cap, surrounded by a wreath or fold ; and this would suggest a resemblance to fig. 12, No. 197 ; which is in fact copied horn a Parthian or later Persian coin. This one is worthy of very particular attention, because it forms a connecting link between the ancient and modern Oriental crowns, the latter consisting either of a cap, with a fold or turban, variously enriched with aigrettes, as this is ; or of a stiff cap of cloth, studded with precious stones. It must often occur to the student of biblical antiquities that the modern usages of the East have more resemblance to the most ancient, than have those which prevailed during that intermediate or classical period in which its peculiar manners and institutions were subject to much extraneous influence from the domination of the Greeks and Romans. So, in the present in stance, we are much impressed with the conviction that such head tires and caps as those represented in Nos. 198 and t99, more correctly represent the regal crowns' of the O. T., than those figured in No. 197 (with the exception of fig. 12, and the simple diadems); which, however, may be taken to represent the style of the crowns which pre vailed in and before the time of the N. T.
Crowns were so often used symbolically to ex press honour and power, that it is not always safe to infer national usages from the passages in which they occur. Hence we would scarcely conclude from Ezek. xxiii. 42, that crowns were worn by Jewish females, although that they wore some ornament which might be so called is probable from other sources. Mr. Lane (Arabian Nights, i. 424) mentions that until about two centuries ago a kind of crown was worn by Arabian females of wealth and distinction. It was generally a circle of jewelled gold (the lower edge of which was straight, and the upper fancifully heightened to a mere point), surmounting the lower part of a dome-shaped cap, with a or some other orna ment at the summit.
It is certain that crowns ' of this or some simi lar kind were worn at marriages (Cant. iii. t 1 ; Is. lxi. ro) ; and it would appear that at feasts and public festivals crowns of rejoicing' were custom ary. These were probably garlands (Wisd. 8 ; iv. 2 ; Ecclus. i. t 1). The crowns' or gar lands which were given to the victors in the public games are more than once alluded to in the Epistles (1 Cor. ix. 25 ; 2 Tim. ii. 5 ; iv. 8; I Pet. v. 4).—J. K.
CRUCIFIXION—in Greek civagravpoUv ; in Latin crud affigere, in crzicenz agere or tollere, in later times cruel figere, whence our crucifixion. To describe this punishment the Jews used the general term r6n, for crucifixion is a kind of hanging ; whence Christ in the polemical writings of the Jews is designated 41-1, 'the hanged one.' Crucifixion was a most cruel and disgraceful pun ishment ; the terms applied to it by ancient writers are, the most cruel and disgraceful ' (Cic. Very. [ii. 5, 64]; Lactan. /nstit. iv. 26); the worst pos sible punishment' (Ulpian); the worst punishment in the world' (Paull. v. 17). It was the punish ment chiefly of slaves; accordingly the word fzirci fer,' cross-bearer,' was a term of reproach for slaves, and the punishment is termed servile supplicium, 'a slave's punishment ' (De Infami yuo Chr. atifec ties est cm. supp., in C. H. Lange's Observatt.
Suer.) Free-born persons also suffered crucifixion, but only humiles, those of low condition and pro vincials. Citizens could not be crucified (Cic. Verr. i. 5 [ii. 1, 31; Quintil. viii. 4 ; Suet. Galb.) This punishment was reserved for the greatest crimes, as robbery, piracy (Scn. Ep. Cic. Petron. 71); assassination, perjury (Firmic. vi. 26) ; sedition, treason, and (in the case of soldiers) desertion (Dion, v. 52; Joseph. Antiq. xiii. 22 ; Apul. Asin. 3). Its origin is ancient. In Thucydides (i. rro) we read of Inarus, an African king, who was crucified by the Egyptians. The similar fate of Polycrates, who suffered under the Persians, is detailed by Herodotus (iii. 125), who adds, in the same book (t59), that no less than 300o persons were condemned to the cross by Darius, after his successful siege of Babylon. Valerius Maximus makes crucifixion the common military punishment of the Carthaginians. That the Greeks adopted it is plain from the cruel executions which Alexander ordered after the capture of Tyre, when 2000 captives were nailed to crosses along the sea-shore (Q. Curtius, iv. 4; Justin, xviii. 3). With the Romans it was used under their early monarchical government, and was the death to which Horatius was adjudged for the stern and savage murder of his sister (Liv. i. 26), where the terms employed shew that the punishment was not at that time limited to any rank or condition. It appears also
from the passage that scourging (verberato) then preceded crucifixion, as undoubtedly was custo mary in later times. The column to which Jesus was fastened during this cruel infliction is stated by Jerome (Epist. ad Eustach.) to have existed in his time in the portico of the holy sepulchre, and to have retained marks of his blood. The Jews received the punishment of crucifixion from the Romans (Joseph. Antiq. xii. 14. 2 ;. xx. 6. 2 ; De Bell. .7ud. ii. 12). Though it has been a matter of debate, yet it appears clear that crucifixion, pro perly so called, was not originally a Hebrew punishment (Bormitii de entice num Ebruvor. supp. fuerit). The condemned, after having been scourged (Liv. xxxvi. 26 ; Prud. Enchir. xli. r), had to bear their cross, or at least the transverse beam, to the place of execution (Plot. De Tani. Dei Vinci. 9 ; Artemid. t r, 41), which was gene rally in some frequented place without the city (Cic. Verr. v. 66). The cross itself, or the up right beam, was fixed in the ground (Cic. ad Quint. Fr. i. 2; Pro Rat. iv. 2). Arrived at the spot, the delinquent was supplied with an intoxicating drink, made of myrrh and other bitter herbs (Pip ping, Exercit. Aced. lv.), and having been stript of his clothing, was raised and affixed to the cross, by nails driven into his hands, and more rarely into his feet ; sometimes the feet were fastened by one nail driven through both (Tertull. Adv. .7ud. x.; Sen. De Vita Beat. 19 ; Lactan. iv. 13). The feet were occasionally bound to the cross by cords, and Xenophon asserts that it was usual among the Egyptians to bind in this manner not only the feet but the hands. A small tablet (titulus), de claring the crime, was placed on the top of the cross (Sueton. Cal. 38 ; Dom. to ; Euseb. Hist. _Eccles. v. 1). The body of the crucified person rested on a sort of seat (rfryzza) (Iren. Adv. Her. ii. 42). The criminal died under the most frightful sufferings—so great that even amid the raging passions of war pity was sometimes excited. Jo sephus (De Bell. led. v. rt. 1) narrates of captives taken at the siege of Jerusalem, that they were first whipped, and tormented with all sorts of tor tures, and then crucified before the walls of the city. The soldiers, out of the wrath and hatred they bore the Jews, nailed those they caught one after one way and another after another, to crosses, by way of jest, when their multitude was so great that room was wanting for the crosses, and crosses wanting for the bodies. This miserable procedure made Titus greatly pity them.' Sometimes the suffering was shortened and abated by breaking the legs of the criminal—crura fracta (Cic. Phil. xiii. 12). After death, among the heathens, the bodies commonly remained on the cross till they wasted away, or were devoured by birds of prey (Horat. Epic?. i. 16, 48 ; Non pasees in truce corms; Plaut. Mil. Glor. ii. 4, 19 ; Plin. Hist. Nat. xxxvi. 24). A military guard was set near the cross, to prevent the corpse from being taken away for burial (Plut. Cleomen. 39 ; Petron. Satyr. iii. 6 ; Sen. Ep. rot). But among the Jews the dead body was customarily taken down and buried. Josephus says (De Bell. yud. v. 2), the Jews used to take so much care of the burial of men that they took down those that were con demned and crucified, and buried them before the going down of the sun.' In order that death might be hastened, and the law might not be violated, the Jews were accustomed to break the legs (John xix. 31 ; Casaubon, Exercitationes Antibaron. p. 537 ; Lipsius, De Crue. lib. iii.) There was a bare possibility in some cases of those who had suffered this punishment recovering after being taken down, under medical treatment. Josephus thus writes (Vit. 75), ' I saw many cap tives crucified, and I remembered three of them as my former acquaintance. I was very sorry at this, and went with. tears in my eyes to Titus ; so he immediately commanded them to be taken down, and to receive the greatest care in order to their recovery ; yet two of them died under the phy sician's hands, while the third recovered.' Com pare Bretschneider, in the Studien u. Erit. for 1832, p. 625. The execution took place at the hands. of the carnifex, or hangman, attended by a band of soldiers, and in Rome, under the supervi sion of the Triumviri Capitales (Tac. Ann. xv. 6o ; Lactan. iv. 26). The accounts given in the Gospels of the execution of Jesus Christ are in entire agree ment with the customs and practices of the Romans in this particular (Tholuck, Glaubutiira'igkeit der Evangel. Gesch. p. 361). The punishment con tinued in the Roman empire till the time of Con stantine, when it was abolished through the influence of the Christian religion. Examples of it are found in the early part of the emperor's reign, but the reverence which, at a later period, he was led to feel for the cross, induced him to put an end to the inhuman practice. (Aur. Vict. Cos. 4r ; Sozom: i. 8; Niceph. vii. 46 ; Firmic. viii. 20). There is a classical work on the subject by Lipsius, Antwerp, 1594 and 1637. Other valuable works, besides those which have been named in this and the article CROSS, are by Vossius, Gretser, Calixtus, Salmasius, and Kip ping. Sagittarius, Bynus, Dilherr, etc., have treated specially on the application of this punish merit in the case of our Lord. The more ancient literature on the subject is detailed in Fabric, Bibliogr. Antiguan Hamb. 176o, P. 755, J. R. B. [CROSS.]