The mode or manner in which instruction was communicated was chiefly catechetical. After the master had delivered his dicta or theme, the disci ples in turn asked different questions (Luke ii. 46), which he frequently answered by parables or coun ter questions, a line of conduct also pursued by Christ in accordance with the custom of the time (comp. Matt. xxii. t7-22; Luke xx. 2-4, etc.) Sometimes the teacher introduced the subject by simply asking a question connected with the theme he proposed to propound, the replies given by the different disciples constituted the discussion, which the master at last terminated by declaring which of the answers was the most appropriate. Thus R. Jochanan b. Zakkai (B.c. 30) on one occa sion wanted to inform his disciples what was the most desirable thing for man to get ; he then asked them, What is the best thing for man to possess ?' One replied, a kind nature ;' another, a good companion ;' another, a good neighbour ;' an other, the power to foresee consequences ;' whilst R. Eleazer said, a good heart.' Whereupon R. Jochanan remarked, I prefer R. Eleazer's answer to yours, for in it all your answers are compre hended' (Aboth. ii. 9). Who is not reminded thereby of the questions put by the Saviour to his disciples in Mark viii. 27-3o? Allegories, riddles, stories, etc., formed another channel whereby instruction was communicated in these schools. The oppressive heat of the Eastern climate, which was especially felt in the crowded college, where, as we have seen, 1200 disciples were sometimes present, tended to make the stu dents drowsy when a hard subject was discussed. The wise teacher, therefore, when he perceived that the attention began to fag, at once intro duced a merry anecdote, or a monstrous story, or propounded a ludicrous riddle, which immediately aroused the disciples, and enabled the master to go on with his theme. Hence the abundance of both sublime and ridiculous parables and stories dispersed throughout the Talmud and Midrash im, which record these lectures ; and hence also the parabolic mode of teaching adopted by our Saviour.
The extent of instruction, or what constituted education in these schools, can hardly be defined. An unbiassed reader will see front a most cursory glance at any of the discussions recorded in the Talmud, that all manner of subjects were brought forward in these colleges. Theology, philosophy, jurisprudence, astronomy, astrology, medicine, botany, geography, arithmetic, architecture, were all themes which alternately occupied the attention of masters and disciples. In fact the Talmud, which has preserved the topics discussed in the colleges, is an encyclopiudia of all the sciences of that time, and shews that in many departments of science these Jewish teachers have anticipated modern discoveries. It would require far more space than the limits of this article allow to quote instances in confirmation of this; we can, there fore, only refer the reader to the treatises quoted below.
Besides the abstruse theological and scientific subjects, etiquette occupied a prominent part in the lectures of the college, and was regarded as form ing an essential part of education. The most minute directions are given as to the behaviour of students towards their parents, their teachers, their superiors in age or rank. Every one met in the street must be saluted (Aboth. iv. to) ; not to respond to a salutation is characterised as commit ting a robbery (Berach. 6, b). An ordinary man is to be saluted with the words, Peace be with thee ;' a teacher, `Peace be with thee, my teacher and my master !' (Rashi Berach. 27, b); and a king, Peace be with thee, my king! peace !' (Gittin, 62, a). Salutations in the house of prayer are not allowed (Derech Eretz, to). One must rise before a learned man (Kethuboth, 103, b), and before the hoary head, even if he be a non-Israelite (Kiddush, 33, b). When three persons walk toge ther, the superior is to walk in the middle (Erub. 54, b) ; the teacher must always be on the right of the pupil in walking (jorna, 37, a). One must not leave a friend without asking his permission (Derech Eretz, 2) ; when leaving one's teacher, the disciple must say, I am dismissed;' whereupon the re sponse is, Depart in peace' (Berach. 64, a).
Never enter a house suddenly and without notice (Keth. 62, b) ; nor sit down before the superior has seated himself (Jenisal. Keth. 25) ; nor lean in the company of superiors (Derech Eretz, sec. vi.) Seven things are seen in the conduct of an edu cated man, and seven in the behaviour of an un educated person. 1. An educated man will be quiet in the presence of one more educated than himself ; 2. Will not interrupt any one speaking ; 3. Will not give a hasty reply ; 4. Will ask ap propriate questions ; 5. Will give suitable answers ; 6. Will answer the first thing first, and the last thing last ; and 7. Will candidly say when he does not know anything. The reverse of these things will be seen in the uneducated' (Aboth. v. so).
Another most essential part of education was the learning of a trade. Thus R. Gamaliel declares, 3-11-N) r6us nnia rizNn nny trim ry, learning, no matter of what kind, if unaccom panied by a trade, ends in nothing and leads to sin (Aboth. ii. 2). R. Judah b. Ilai, called `the wise,' the first orator,' had a trade, and used to say, ' labour honours the labourer' (Nedarim, 49, b). R. Ismael, the great astronomer and powerful oppOnent of Gamaliel II., was a needle-maker ( Jer. Berach. iv. i) ; R. Jose b. Chalafta of Sepphoris was a tanner (Sabbath, 49, b). These Rabbins, like the Apostle Paul, gloried in the fact that they could maintain themselves, and teach independently of payment, and hence took a pride in their respec tive trades which were attached to their names, viz., Rabbi 7ochanan, the shoemaker (pill' '1 +MOM) ; Rabbi Simon, the weaver Rabbi yoseph, the carpenter ("On rpr I). This will account for the apparent anomaly that the apostle Paul, a thorough student, should have been a tent-maker.
Though female education was necessarily limited, owing to the position which women occupied in the East, yet it must not be supposed that it was altogether neglected. The fact that mothers had to take part in the education of their children would, of itself, shew that their own education must have been attended to. We are, however, not confined to this inference. The 31st chapter of Proverbs gives us a description of what was the education of a woman and a housewife in the O. T. In the Talmud we find the daughters of R. Samuel were even first-rate students of the Halacha (Kethuboth, 23, a ; Jer. ibid. ii. 6). R. Jochanan b. Napucha not only urges the study of Greek as a necessary part of a man's education, but recom mends it also for women as a desirable accom plishment (Jerusal. Sota, towards the end). To shew the desirableness of uniting with Hebrew the study of Greek, this celebrated rabbi, in accord ance with the ancient practice, illustrates it by a passage of Scripture (Gen. ix. 23) :—` Because the two sons of Noah, Shem and Japheth, unitedly covered the nakedness of their father with one gar ment ; Shem (representing the Jews) obtained the fringed garment, the Talith; Japheth (representing the Greeks) got the philosopher's garment, i.e., Pallium,' which ought to be united again (Midrash Rabba, Gen. xxxvi.) Heme R. Abuha was not only himself a consummate Greek scholar, but had his daughter instructed in this classical language, since he regarded it as necessary to a good female educa tion, and quoted R. Jochanan as an authority upon this subject ( Jerusal. Sabbath, iii. I ; Sota, to wards the end). .
best literature upon this subject is the Talmud and Midrashim, but, as these are not generally accessible, we must mention the mas. terly works of Zunz, Die Gottesdienstlichin !'or trage der Yuclen, Berlin, 1832 ; Frankel, Der Gerichtliche Beweis, Berlin, 1846 ; Monatschrift, i. 509, etc. ; Wunderbar, Biblisch-Talmna'ische Medi an, Riga and Leipzig, 1S50-6o ; Lewysohn, Die Zoologie des Talmuds, Frankfurt-am-Main, 1858 ; Graetz, Gischichte der yuden, vols. iii. and iv. ; Ben Chananja, vol. i. 417, 460, 512_,- vol. 66, 167, 210, 258 ; VOL iii. 539.—C. D. G.