The Grecian influence which made itself felt after the exile, led to a great change in the manners and customs of the Hebrew nation. They were soon an almost different people from what we find them in the days of their national independence and primitive simplicity. In Macc. 14, we find evi dence that the Grecian games were introduced ; and that a gymnasium was built under Antiochus Epiphanes They built a place of exercise at Jerusalem, according to the custom of the heathen.' Comp. 2 Maccab. iv. 12, 13, 14, where special men tion is made of the prevalence of Greek fashions,' and the game of Discus ;' though, as appears clearly from the last passage (v. 17), these prac tices were considered contrary to the Mosaic insti tutions, and were hateful to pious Israelites. The Herodian princes had theatres and amphitheatres built in Jerusalem and other cities of Palestine, in which were held splendid games, sometimes in honour of their Roman masters. We cite a re markable passage to this effect from Josephus (A ntiq. xv. S. 1):--` Herod revolted from the laws of his country, and corrupted the ancient constitu tion by introducing foreign practices, while those religious observances which used to lead the multi tude to piety were neglected. He appointed solemn games to be celebrated every fifth year in honour of Cmsar, and built a theatre at Jerusalem, as also a very great amphitheatre in the plain—both costly works, but contrary to Jewish customs. He also called men together out of every nation ; wrestlers and others, who strove for prizes in these games, were invited by the hope and reward of victory. The most eminent were got together, for the re wards were very great, not only to those that per formed their exercise naked, but to musicians also. He moreover offered no small rewards to those who ran for prizes in chariot-races, when they were drawn by two, three, or four pairs of horses. He made also great preparation of wild beasts and even of lions in great abundance, and of such other beasts as were either of uncommon strength or rarely seen. These fought one with another, or men condemned to death fought with them. Above all the rest the trophies gave most displeasure to the Jews, who imagined them to be images.' (See also Antiq. xvi. 5. ; xix. 7. 4; xix. S. 2 ; Etch hom, .De .earieor. seenica, in the Comment.
Goetting. Rec.) The drama does not appear to have been introduced, but Jews were in foreign countries actors of plays (Joseph. Vita, sec. 3). The passage already cited (see the original) is full of evidence how distasteful these heathenish games were to the more sound-minded part of the nation.
The fact that, as we have seen, the games of the amphitheatre were celebrated even in Jerusalem, serves to make it very likely that Paul in Cor. xv. 32 ; iv. 9, alludes to these detestable practices, though it is not probable that the apostle was himself ac tually exposed to the fury of the raging animals. Contrary to the (pinion of some writers, the refer ence to these combats appears to us veiy clear, though it was only metaphorically that Paul fought with beasts at Ephesus.' The word which the apostle (1 Cor. xv. 32) uses is emphatic anri descriptive, /thiptoucixThra. The Oriploaaxi.a or beast-fight (venatio in Latin) constituted among the Romans a part of the amusements of the circus or amphitheatre. It consisted in the combat of human
beings with animals. The persons destined to this barbarous kind of amusement were termed 07;p4o oxixol, bestiarii. They were generally of two classes —1. Voluntaiy, that is, persons who fought either for amusement or for pay : these were clothed and provided with offensive and defensive weapons.
2. Condemned persons, who were mostly exposed to the fury of the animals unclothed, unarmed, and sometinies bound (Cic. Pro Sext. 64; Ep. ad Quint. Prat. ii. 6 ; Senec. De Emil: ii. 19 ; Tertull. .4tol. 9). As none but the vilest of men were in general devoted to these beast-fights, no punish ment could be more shameful and cruel than what was frequently inflicted on the primitive Christians, when they were hurried away to the lions' (as the phrase was), merely for their fidelity to conscience and to Christ, its Lord. Ephesus appears to have had some unenviable distinction in these brutal ex hibitions (Schleusner, voe.), so that there is a peculiar propriety in the language of the apostle.
Of these beast-fights the Romans were passion ately fond. The number of animals which appear to have been from time to time engaged in them, is such as to excite in the reader's mind both pity and aversion.
The N. T., in several places, contains refer ences to the celebrated Grecian Games, though it may be allowed that some commentators have imagined allusions where none were designed. As might, from his heathen learning, be expected, it is Paul who chiefly supplies the passages in ques tion ; comp. Gal. ii. 2, v. ; Phil. ii. 16 ; IIeb.
xii. xii. 4 ; Phil. iii. 14 ; 2 Tim. ii• 5 ; and espe cially in Cor. ix. 24-27. In the O. 'F. two passages contain a clear reference to games ; Ps. xix. 5 ; Eccl. ix. Ir.
As tending to illustrate these scriptural allusions, we shall describe some of the exercises in which the competitors engag,ed in the grcat games of Greece :— I. The Gymnasti.: Exereises.—These were laid down in a well-planned systcmatic series, begin ning with the easier (I.-60a), and proceeding on to the more difficult (fiapb.). Some of these were specially fitted to give strength, others agility ; some educated the hands, others the feet. Among the lighter exercises were reckoned running (SpOi.kos), leaping (0kaa), quoiting (Sioeos), hurling the jave lin (dkorreop). When skill had been obtained in these, and the consequent strength, then followed a severer course of discipline. This was two-fold— r, simple ; 2, compound. The simple consisted of wrestling (irdX1/), boxing (ritymj) : the compound we_ find in the Pentathlon (the five contests), and the Pankration (or general trial of strength). The Pentathlon was made up of the union of leaping, running, quoiting, wrestling, and hurling the spear; the Pankration consisted of wrestling- and boxing. It is not necessary here to speak in detail of the distinctions which Galen makes between the nary motions of the body and those which were required in these exercises, since the names selves are sufficient to make manifest how manifold, severe, long, and difficult the body discipline was, and the inference is easy and unavoidable that the effect on the bodily frame must have been of the most decided and lasting kind.