Usually they carried with them a staff 6iRn, tn0 furnished with a crook, which might be used for the purpose of catching an animal by the foot ; those who had the charge of oxen carried with them a goad (p-11, ln9n, Judg. 31; r Sam.
21 [GoAD]). They had also a wallet or small bag (ttil)+, riipa) in which to carry provi sions, ammunition, or any easily portable article (I Sam. xvii. 40, 43 ; Ps. xxiii. 4 ; Micah vii. 14; Matt. x. to ; Luke bC. 3, to). Their dress consisted principally of a cloak or mantle (the burnoose of the modern Arabs) in which they could wrap the entire body (Jer. xliii. 12). For food they were obliged to be contented with the plainest fare, and often were reduced to the last extremities (Amos vii. 14 ; Luke xv. I5)• Their wages consisted in a portion of the produce, especially of the milk of the flock (Gen. xxx. 32, ff.; Cor. ix. 7). That they cultivated music is not unlikely, though it hardly follows from I Sam. xvi. 18, for David's case may have been excep tional ; in all countries and times, however, music has been associated with the pastoral life. When the servants belonging to one rnaster existed in any number they were placed under a chief (rupn Gen. xlvii. 6; cipxtzron.c0, I Pet. v. 4) ; and under the monarchy there was a royal officer who bore the title of D'IN1 chief of the herdsmen' Sam. xxi. 7 ; comp. Chron. xxvit. 29, and magister regii pecoris, Liv. 4).
The animals placed under the care of these herdsmen were chiefly sheep and goats • but be sides these there were also neat cattle, asses, camels, and in later times swine. It would seem that the keeping of the animals last named was the lowest grade in the pastoral life (Luke xv. 15); and probably the keeping of sheep and goats was held to be the highest, as that of horses is among the Arabs in the present day (Niebuhr, Arable, i. 226). The herdsman led his charge into the open pasture land, where they could freely roam and find abun dant supply of food ; the neat cattle were conducted to the richer pastures, such as those of Bashan, while the sheep, goats, and camels found sufficient sustenance from the scantier herbage of the more rocky and arid parts of Palestine, provided there was a supply of water.* Whilst in the fields the herdsmen lived in tents (ni):2in, Song of Sol.
i. 8 ; Is. xxxviii. 12 ; Jer. vi. 3), and there were folds (1-1i-M, Num. xxxii. ; 2 Sant. vii. 8 ; .• Zerh. ii. 6), and apparently in some cases tents an,9riN, 2 Citron. xiv. 15) for the cattle. Watch towers were also erected, whence the shepherd could descry any coming danger to his charge ; and vigilance in this respect was one of the shep herd's cheif virtues (Mic. iv. ; Nah. IS ; Luke ii. 8). If any of the cattle wandered, he was bound to follow them, and leave no means untried to recover them (Ezek. xxxiv. 12 ; Luke xv. 5);
and harsh masters were apt to require at their servants' hands any loss they might have sustained, either by the wandering of the cattle or the ravages of wild beasts (Gen. xxxi. 38, ff.), a tendency on which a partial check was placed by the law, that if it was tom by beasts, and the pieces could be produced, the person in whose charge it was should not be required to make restitution (Exod. xxii. ; comp. Amos iii. 12). To assist them in both watching and defending the flocks, and in recover ing any that bad strayed, they had dogs (Job xxx. as have the modern Arabs, not, however, like those in other lands, fine faithful fellows, the friend and companion of their masters, . . but a mean, sinister, ill-conditioned generation, kept at a distance, kicked about, and half-starved, with nothing noble or attractive about them' (Thomson, Land and Book, i. 301), a description which fully suits Job's disparaging comparison.
The flocks and herds were regularly counted (Lev xxtr:i. 32 ; Jer. xxxiii. 13).
The pastures to which the herdsmen conducted their flocks were called &pm, the places without, the countly, the desert (Joh v. 10; xviii. ; Prov.
viii. 26 : comp. gEw epthols, Mark i. 45) ; also n'IN? (Jer. xxv. 37 ; Amos i. 2), "z (ps.
lxv. 13 ; Jer. ix. 9, etc.), Mt) (I Sam. vii. 8 ; Hos.
ix. 13, etc.), 171? (Ps. lxv. 1.3 ; Is. xlii. ; Jer.
xxiii. ro ; Joel ii. 22, etc.) In summer the mo dem nomades seek the northern and more hilly regions, in winter they betake themselves to the south and to the plain country (D'Arvieux, 315 ; v. 428); and probably the name usage pre vailed among the Hebrews. In leading out the flocks, the shepherd went before them, and they followed him obedient to his call ; a practice from which our Saviour draws a touching illustration of the intimate relation between Him and His people (John x. 4). The young and the sickly of the flock the shepherd would take in his arms and carry, and he was careful to adapt the rate of ad vance to the condition and capacity of the feebler or burdened portion of his charge ; a practice which again gives occasion for a beautiful illustration of God's care for his people (Is. xl. ; comp. Gen. xxxiii. 13). These usages still prevail in Palestine, and have been often described by travellers ; one of the most graphic descriptions is that given by Mr. Thomson (Land and Book, i. 301, ff. ; comp. Wilson, Lands of the Bible, ii. 322). As the Jews advanced in commercial wealth the office of shepherd diminished in importance and dignity. Among the later Jews the shepherd of a small flock was precluded from bearing witness, on the ground that, as such fed their flocks on the pas tures of others, they were infected with dishonesty (Maimon. Dana'', ii. 3).—W . L. A.