I. THE SOPHERIM oosinlo) OR SCRIBES.
Date and institution. —The period of the So pherim begins with the return of the Jews from the Babylonish captivity, and ends with the death of Simon the Just (circa 4.58-3oo B.c.), embracing nearly a hundred and sixty years. Though there were popular teachers of the law in the Babylonish captivity, as is evident from Ezra viii. 16, where these official instructors are denominated skilled in the law (avsn), and from the fact that Ezra him self was at the head of such a class (Ezra vii. 12, 21, with Neh. xiii. 13), yet the language in which the sacred oracles were written was gradually dying out, and Hebrew ceased in many instances to be the lang-uage of the people (Neh. xiii. 24). This rendered the understanding of the Scriptures by the people at large a difficult matter. Besides, the newly altered state after the return from the Baby: lonish captivity, which called for new enactments as well as for the expansion and modification of some Pentateuchal laws, imperatively demanded. that an authoritative body of teachers should so explain the law, which was regarded as the only rule of practice, as to adapt it to present circum stances. Hence Ezra, who reorganised the new state, also organised such a body of interpreters, of which he was the chief. It is for this reason that he is called Sopher=one occupied with books, interpreter of the Book (Ezra vii. 6, It, 12, 21; Neh. viii. 1, 4, 9, 13 ; xii. 26, 36), that he is denominated the second Moses (Sanhedrin,2 t b ; Tosiphta, ibid. cap. iv. ; Yerusalem Megilla, 9), and that it is said when the Tora was forgotten by Israel Ezra came from Babylon and restored it again' (Succa, 2o a, with 2 Esdras xiv. 21-47). The skilled in the law both from among the tribe of Aaron and the laity, who with Ezra, and after his death to the time of the Tanaim, thus interpreted and fixed the divine law, are denominated Sopherim, Scribes, in the strict sense of the word. Many of these Sopherim were members of the Great Synagogue which was formed by Nehemiah after the death of Ezra [SYNAGOGUE, THE GREAT] • hence the terms Sopherim and the men of the Great' Synagogzse etIN ;1$11n ron) are frequently interchanged, and hence too the canons which were enacted during this period are sometimes recorded in the name of the former and sometimes in the name of the latter, though they proceed from one and the same body. Reserving those enactments which are recorded in the name of the Great Synagogue for that artide [SYNAGOGUE, THE GREAT], we shall here specify the most important acts and monuments which have come down to us as proceeding from the Sopherim or Scribes.
ii. The work of the Sopherim or Scribes.—It is not too much to say that the work of these Sathe r:Vs embraces the whole field of civil and relig,ious law, both as it is contained in the written word of God and as it obtained in the course of time ; and that it is most essential to the criticism and inter pretation of the O. T. to understand these enact ments, inasmuch as they materially affect the text ot the Hebrew Scriptures. This will be evident from the following brief description of some of the Sopheric work :—t. In accordance with the pri mary meaning of their name, the Scribes or Sothe rinz copied the Pentateuch, the Phylacteries, and Mezuzoth, for the people (Pesachim, 5o b), since it was only the codices which proceeded from these authoritative teachers that could be relied upon. 2. They g-uarded the Bible against any interpola tions or corruptions, and for this purpose -counted the letters of the Scriptures. Thus the Scribes tell us that in five instances (Gen. xviii. 5 ; xxiv. 35 ; Num. xxxi. 2 ; Ps. xxxvi. ; bcviii. 26), a vav crApt into the text through a vitiated provin cial pronunciation, for which reason these Sophe ric corrections are called the emendations of the Scribes (DY1B113 -111DIJ, Nedarim, 37 b [Km AND KETHiv ; MASORAH] ; Ginsburg's translation of Jacob b. Chajim's Introduction to the Rabbinic Bible, p. 12), and that the 1 in ;ma (Lev. xi. 42) is the central letter of the whole Pentateuch (Kid dushin, 3o a). 3. They read the law before the people in the synagogues on stated occasions, for which reason Ezra, the chief Scribe, is denominated (clva-yadicrnis) the prxlector of the law (z Esdras 'via. 8). Hence the usage of the word Scribe or Sopher ODD) in post-biblical Hebrew to denote a tublic reaa'er of the law (Sabbath, 31 a). Moreover they indicated to the people when words were in pause or when they were in the plural, or simply had dual forms as is the case with rN, invn, etc. These indications are called the Rean'ing of the Scribes (13"MD Nip/D). 4. They propounded the duties incukated in the Scriptures to the people at large on Sabbath and festivals, and delivered lectures to their disciples in the week days, in the colleges, on the profounder import of Holy Writ. These expositions are called Sopheric comments (bvitliD 'L'11-1T). 5. They defined the limits of each precept, and determined the manner in which the sundry commands of the divine law are to be performed—ex. gr. they fixed the pas sages of Scripture meant by the words of com mand' which the Lord enjoined the Israelites to bind for a sign upon their hands, and to be as front.ets between their eyes ' (Exod. xiii. 9, 16; Deut. vi. 8 ; xi. 18, with Afenachoth, 34 b [PHY LACTERIES]) ; the portions of the Bible to be re cited at morning and evening prayer as indicated in the words thou shalt talk about them . . . . when thou liest down and when thou risest up ' (Deut. vi. 7), etc. These definitions of the injunctions are denominated the measures of the Scribes rnpr:, vvhich, though in theory they are tinguished from the letter of the Bible grim Inz-;), yet in authority are equal to it, and are regarded as divinely legal (ignryarrn). 6. They fixed the traditional law, which was in the mouth and memory of the people. 7. They enacted hibitory laws, called Fences (nnta, YD, 1-1,), to guard the Biblical precepts from being violated, and these enactments are styled the precepts of the Scribes or the Sapherinz, the injunctions of the elders onn, rnpt npri rnyn, wpm n-ron co-op); and in the N. T. the traditions of the
elders (rapaSocrets TCJI, rpeoprrIpcov, Matt. XV. 2 ; Mark vii. 3), the traditions of the fathers (narpt nal rapa8bcrecs, Gal. i. 14). Hence, as the phrase 1:741t10 +1Z-1 is not only used to express the So ;Merle expositions of the Pentateuch, but more especially to denote the definitions ancl hed,ges of the Seribes sufieradded to the divine law, it is fre quently identical with the phrase oral law (rrnn ;ID 1,zur). Hence, too, the remark which often occurs in the Talmudic writings, a subject the basis of which is in the words of the Pentateuch, but the definition or superstructure of which is from the words of the Scribes' (rron +-inn lint, 111 134101D ram, Sanhedrin, 87 a ; Jerusa lem, ibid. xi. 4; Kiddushin, 77 a) ; when the sim ple letter of the inspired code is spoken of in con tradistinction to the definitions and hedges of the Scribes ; and 8. They removed anthropomorphisms and other indelicate expressions from the Scriptures by introducing alterations into the text, of which the following eighteen instances are especially re corded ;—z. For the original reading, vitv nvin inizt4 .))th -Inv, and Jehovah still stood bgrore Abraham (Gen. xviii. 22), they substituted 13r113N1 i11;14 4:6 "I*12 1:1W, and Abraham still stood before ,hovah, because it appeared offensive to say that the Deity stood before the patriarch. 2. For the remark of Moses in his prayer, Kill nze, I pray thee, . . . . that I may not see nrwiz) THY EVIL' (Num. xi. 15)—i.e. the punishment where with thou visitest Israel—they substituted, that I may not see (41-11rq MY EVIL,' because it might seem as if Moses ascribed evil to the Deity. 3 and 4. They altered Let her not be as one dead, who proceeded from the womb of CLIDN) OUR MOTHER, and half of (MUM) OUR FLESH be consunzed' (Num. xii. t2), into 'Let her not be as one dead born, which, when it proceeds from the womb of (ION) ITS MOTHER, has half (rIV2) ITS FLESH consumed.' 5. They changed 'for his sons cursed (04;15N) GOD (I Sam. Ili. 13), which is still retained in the Sept., into 'for his sons cursed (nth) THEMSELVES,' be cause it was too offensive to say that the sons of Eli cursed God, and that Eli knew it and did not reprove them for it. 6. g Will God see (1)43/M) WITH His EVE' (2 Sam. xvi. t2) ? they altered into will God look (4713,73) AT MY AFFLICTION ?' be cause it was too anthropomorphitic. 7. To His GOD (prilm5), 0 Israel, . . . . and Israel went 04n$D6) TO THEIR GOD' (z Kings xii. 16), they 2Itcred. into ` To YOUR TENTS (-1,rul,), 0 Israel, . . ctnd Israel departed TO THEIR TENTS ;' because the separation of Israel from the house of David was regarded as a necessary transition to idolatry, it was looked upon as leaving God and the sanctuary for the worship of idols in tents. 8. For the same reason they altered 2 Chron. x. 16, which is a parallel passage. 9. lily People have changed (41127) MY GLORY for an idol ' (Jer. ii. t), they altered into have changed (011MZ) THEIR GLORY into an idol,' because it is too offen sive to say such a thing. to. ` Thq have put the rod to MN) NIY NOSE ' (Ezek. viii. 17), they changed into 'they have put the rod to (DEN) THEIR NOSE.' I 1. 7'he7 have changed (411=) MY GLORY into shame (Hos. iv. 7), they altered into ` I will change their glmy into shame' (0.1): n-nnn 'Ont.:), for the same reason which dictated the ninth alteration. 12. Thou diest not' (nvon), addressed by the prophet to God (Hab. 12), they altered into we shall not die' gnu)), because it was deemed improper. 13. ` The apple of (4.n) MINE EYE (Zech. ii. 12), they altered into ` the apple of (1n) HIS EYE,' for the reason which called forth the tenth emendation. 14. ` Ye make on) N) ME expire' (Mal. i. 13), they altered into ye weary onIN) IT,' because of its being too gross an anthropomorphism. is. 4 They have changed (4111Z) MY GLORY into the similitude of an ox' (Ps. cvi. 20), they altered into ` they have changed (n-nnn) THEIR GLORY into the similitude of an ox ;' for the same reason which called forth the alterations in Jer. 11 and Hos. iv. 7, or emendations nine and eleven. 16. ` Ant I a burden (1,11) TO THEE?' (Job vii. 20), which Job addresses to God, they altered into ` so that I am a burden (45N) TO MYSELF,' to remove its offen siveness. 17. ` They condemned oz,r6N nt4, or rm nN) GOD Or THE DIVINE JUSTICE (Job xxxii. 3), they altered into they condemnea' yob ;' for the same reason which called forth the six teenth emendation ; and 18. ` Thou wilt remember, ancl THY SOUL WILL MOURN OVER ME' (S51/ Min') TIL,"D), Lam. iii. 20), they altered into ` and my soul is humblea' within me N.:* +5rnivirro; because of the seeming impropriety on the part of the sacred writer to say that God will mourn. These tions are denominated Tikun Sopherim, the eighteen emendations of the Scribes (wino i+ro ir), or simply, Tikun Sopherirn mn) = the emendations of the Scribes, and are given in the Massora magna on Num. i. ; xi. 15 ; Ps. cvi. 20 ; Ezek. viii. 17 ; Hab. ; and in the the Massoriz finalis tp, 13 (comp. Pinsker in the Hebrew Essays and Reviews, entitled Kerent Che med, vol. ix. p. 52, ff., Bern' 1856 • Geiger, Ursehrift und Uebersetzungen der p. 308, ff. ; Frensdorff, Ocklah trochlah, p. 37, ff., Han over 1864 ; Ginsburg, The Introduction ya c b b. Chajim to the Rabbinic Bible, Hebrew and English, p. 28, etc., Longman 1865).
The manner in which the Sopherim or Scribes transmitted their work.—Their great reverence for the divine law their extraordinary modesty and humility, as Nv'ell as their fear lest any of their writings should be raised to the dignity of Holy Writ, prevented the Scribes or Sopherim from em bodying their expositions and enactments in sepa