CENTRAL ASIA is a term used differently by geographers, ethnologists, and politicians; by the last of these it is usually applied to the region intervening' between Russia in Asia on the north, and Persia and Afghanistan on the south, and lying to the west of Chinese Tartary, its chief western boundary being the Caspian Sea. The Russians often restrict the term Central Asia to the second great division of the Central Asiatic high lands of their Asiatic possessions, which is mainly comprised within the Aralo-Caspian depression. The vast plateau of Central Asia proper has on its east the lofty table-land of the Bolor moun tains, which form the western boundary of Turkestan and Dzungaria, and the river Irtish ; the northern boundary is Western Siberia, and Afghanistan lies south-east. The northern half of Central Asia consists of the Kirghiz desert, which is mountainous and rugged on the east, and full of saline steppes on the west. In the midst of the southern half lies the Sea of Arid, on the western side of which, up to the Caspian Sea on the west, there stretches a broad tract of desert. But on its eastern side is a fertile tract, watered by the Syr Darya and Amu Darya, the Jaxartes and the Oxus, and it is in this fertile tract that the conquests of Russia were made between 1864 and 1868. After long years spent in fortifying posts, in 1864 Russia made a sudden irruption into the upper valley of the Jaxartes, and took three forts of Khokand, viz. Aoulictta, Turkestan, and Chernkend. In the spring of 1865 the chief of Khokand fell in battle; and in June 1865 the city of Tashkend was stormed. On the 20th May 1866 they fought and won the battle of Irdjar against the Bokhariotes, and later in the year captured the forts of Oratepe and Juzak, within 40 miles of Samarcand. On the 13th May 1868 a great battle was fought under the walls of Samarcand, and the city surrendered; and later in the year Bokhara yielded (Fortnightly Review, July 1868). In these operations the Russians used only 2000 and 3000 men, and never had more than 15,000 in all Turkestan. Russian Turkestan has a population of two millions, viz. Bokhara, 1,000,000 ; Khokand, 900,000 ; Khiva (less the independent Turkoman tribes), 300,000. During the fifteen years, 1867 to 1882, that General Kaufman was governor-general of Turkes tan, Russia became paramount in Khiva (1873), took Kuldja from the Chinese, and again restored it, and subdued the Tekke Turkoman. Kuldja
was important to Russia so long as the advance upon, India lay through Turkestan • but directly the line of aggression was shifted lc, the Trans Caspian region, it was seen at once how relatively inferior any annexations in the direction of Kash gar were to those by way of Akhal and Merv. Russian rule in Turkestan is harsh, but it is far ahead of Chinese administration in Kashgar, particularly in the extreme respect and tolerance accorded to the Mahomedans in the exercise of their religion.
The south - eastern boundary line, along the Afghan frontier, was accurately laid down by agreement with the British Government in 1873. The south-western boundary line, along the Per sian frontier, under agreement with the Persian Government in 1882, now runs from the south east corner of the Caspian up the Atrek valley to Chat, at the junction of the Sumbar, thence east wards along the water-parting to a point south east of Askabad.
The Caspian Sea is the lowest part of the Aralo-Caspian depression, and all the streams of Central Asia ought to disembogue into the Caspian; but the river Emba alone reaches that outlet. All the rest run dry, like the Tajand, Murghab, Zar-afshan, Chui, '!'alas, and Sari, or else, like the Oxus and Jaxartes, become absorbed in the Aral.
The mountain ranges in this region comprise the Karakorum, Konen Lan, Pamir, and Tian Shan. The Pamir forms the nucleus of the whole Central Asiatic highland system. Here converge the Hindu Kush and Himalaya from the south west and south-east, the Konen Lan from the east, the Tian Shan from the north-east ; while the plateau itself merges westwards in the snowy highlands and ice-fields about the sources of the Zar-afshan, between the valleys of the Amu Darya (Oxus) and Syr Darya (Jaxartes). It consists of a vast plateau formation, some 30,000 square miles in extent, with a mean elevation of at least 15,000 feet, culminating in the east with the Tagharma, 25,500feet. Northwards its limits are the Alai and Trans-Alai ranges, skirting the south side of Farghana (Khokand), and forming the water-parting between the valleys of the Syr Darya and Zar-afshan rivers. Its southern limits seem to be marked by the ridge connecting the Karakorum with the Hindu Kush, and forming the water - parting between the Upper Amu Darya and Indus basins.