There are several large zamindaries,—Venkata Kalastri, Karvetnuggur, Punganur, Ramnad, Shevagunga, and Palicondah, with permanent settlements similar to those in Bengal.
The Madras revenue system is largely that known as the ryotwari, which had its strongest advocate in Sir Thomas Munro in the latter years of the 18th and beginning of the 19th centuries, and means a settlement direct with the occupying cultivator. About the year 1870 there were 3,227,726 farmers and sub - tenants, holding 2,297,158 single or joint farms. Under the ryotwari system, the peasantry pay an average of Rs. 23. per acre. Of the ryots on the rent-roll only 420 were paying upwards of £100 a year of rent to Government, only 1627 from £50 to £100, only 5641 from £25 to £50, and only 77,408 from £10 to £25. Of all the rest, forming about 90 per cent. of the whole, 118,672 were paying less than £5 a year, 431,569 less than £3, and 1,197,157 —the great majority—less than £1 a year. Only one country of Bengal—Chittagong—presents a parallel to it, and there Government has long tried to induce the peasantry to accept a fee-simple tenure. Mr. Maltby, Acting Governor, in a minute on Sir W. Denison's proposal to remove the poverty and agricultural ignorance of the Madras ryots by model farms and imported machinery, observed that the surest way of pro moting improvement is to render land valuable and attract capital to it by such methods as fixing a light and permanent assessment, giving security of title, enlarging the means of irrigation, and facilitating the conveyance of produce. Mr.
Pycroft, with similar wisdom, said, ' The main remedies are the lowering of the land assessment where unduly high, and placing it on a permanent footing, security of tenure, devlopment of internal communication, extension of irrigation, reduction of the interference of subordinate revenue officials, cheaper and more prompt administration of justice, and diffusion of education.' Mr. Dalyoll, secretary to the Madras Govern ment, estimated that there was produced an annual supply of 129 million cwt. of grain for the support of the population, or more than 5 cwt. for each person, being more than lbs. per diem, whereas a family of five can subsist upon 7 lbs. per day, without difficulty; and 3 acres of superior land, supposing 1 acre to be irrigated, or 4 acres of unirrigated land, would support such a family for a year. The produce of an acre of the best rice land varies from 1080 Madras measures ( = about 30 cwt.) in the southern districts to 1200 measures ( = about 33 cwt.) in Goda very and Kurnool ; and the worst rice lands yield 8 to 14 cwt. Mr. Dalyell's estimate of 7 lbs. for five of a family is, however, a scant allowance.
The following inams or revenue-free tenures are found in the Madras Presidency :—(1) Lands held by religions institutions, with an estimated area of 1,458,081 acres, on which the Govern ment assessment would be £242,247 ; the larger I portion of these are held by the pagodas in the 'southern districts, at Tripati, Conjeveram, Srimn gam, Rameswaram, and Madura. (2) Grants for
purposes of public utility, chiefly for providing water and shade.
The Chetty and Komati are the chief trading classes ; the Kama, Kapn, Naik, Reddi, Wak kaliga, Vellala, and Velama are the agriculturists, with Baut and Nadavar in Canara, and Nair in Malabar. These belong to the well-to-do ranks of the community. They do not usually cultivate with their own hands, and many of them formerly held their lands on a military tenure. The pastoral castes are called Idaiyar in Tamil, and Golla in Telugu. Of the artisan castes, called Kamalar in Tamil and Kamsala in Telugu, nearly one-half arc employed with metals. They have succeeded generally in maintaining a higher position in the social scale than is awarded to them in Northern India. The agricultural labourers belong to castes that were predial serfs up to the close of the last century. Even at the present time the conditions of service are not favourable to the labourer.
In the south, the Vannian supply the bulk of agricultural labour. The Maravar and the Kallar, whose acknowledged head is the raja of Puducottah, bear a bad reputation for thieving and general lawlessness. The Upparavar are chiefly engaged in the manufacture of salt and saltpetre ; the Wadavar in tank digging and road-making. The fishing and hunting castes are called Sembadavan in Tamil and Bests in Telugu. Many of them have now betaken them selves to agriculture. The non-Aryans proper, whose Tamil name of Parayen has been adopted into European languages, are called Mala in Telugu, Holia in Canarese, Poliygar in Malealam, and Dher in Mahrati. In the country round Madras they amount to about one-quarter of the total population. In 1871 the Pariahs returned themselves under more than 200 subdivisions in the census report. The principal wandering tribes are the l3rinjara and Lambadi, carriers of grain and salt. The Koravar races wander over a wide area in Nellore and the adjacent districts, and constitute one of the chief criminal classes.
In 1881 there were 519,823 children under instruction ; 1,535,790 adults could read and write, and 12,843,296 could neither read nor write. Over 28 millions of the population (28,497,678) follow forms of Hinduism ; 711,080 are Christians, and 1,933,561 Muhammadans. The great bulk of the population is of Turanian origin, the Brahmans and Rajputs who claim Aryan origin being only 1,136,111 out of the 31,497,678 of total inhabitants. Christians are more numerous in this presidency than in any other part of the country, the total of British India being 1,862,525. 473,352 of the Madras Christians are of the Romish persuasion. The Muhammadans, 1,933,561 in number, are chiefly of the Sunni sect.
The following are the more numerous of the castes in Madras, Mysore, and Travancore :—