In later Jewish history, the idea came to be that it was better for a woman to be a transferable concubine than to die an old maid, and virginity and childlessness were the only lots bewailed under the later Old Testament regime. A writes in the Westminster Review observes that wher ever the regime has been theocratic, as in the Jewish and Papal theocracies, there woman has fared the worst ; and her position has been most favourable wherever a strong, rough, moral sense of individual right, as in pagan Greece and Rome, has been dominant. In pagan Rome, seclusion was not known, but on its change to Christianity this became prevalent, divorce became impractic able ; and while woman, theologically, was pro nounced to be queen of heaven and mother of God, she became a mere chattel of her husband.
Polygamy has prevailed in Asia generally from the most ancient times, but as a rule it has been practised only amongst the rich and luxurious, or by those whose first wives gave no children, or amongst tribes whose traditions and customs compelled them to raise up seed to their deceased brethren. The Vedas, however, recognise mono gamic marriages, the union of one man and one woman, as the natural state : husbands and wives are described in the Rig Veda (Mand. i. Hymn 131, v. 3 ; also Hymn 43) as presenting their oblations two and two together, and at another place (Mand. ii. Hymn 39) a husband and a wife are given amongst other illustrations of pairs. On the other hand (Mand. i. Hymn 126), a young rishi named Kakshivat celebrates the generosity of a raja who had given him his ten daughters in marriage. Amongst ancient mountain tribes on the western parts of the Himalaya, known as Gandharva, and supposed to be the modern Kan dahar, the practice was at one time prevalent amongst the Kshatriya tribes of forming a union by mutual consent, and associating together without any preliminary ceremonies. The Brali manical legislator Mann (ch. iii. v. 26-32-41) recognises the legality of such marriages, but declares none but the Kshatriya race may contract them ; he denounces them as base unions, the offspring of which will act cruelly, speak un truthfully, and abhor the Vedas. Such pairings, in the present day, are not known.to occur.
Mann says there are eight forms of the nuptial ceremony used by the four classes, some good and some bad in this world and in the next. They are termed — Brahma, the gift of a to a Brahman learned in the Vedas, voluntarily incited.
Deva, the gift of a daughter to the officiating priest at a sacrifice, Araha, or that of the Rishis, in which the father receives from the bridegroom the gift of one or two pair of trine.
Prajapoyn, the Oppu of the Tamils, that of the Praja pati or patriarchs, in which the father gives away his daughter with due reverence.
Acura, that of the Aiwa, the Arumponi Vinai of the Tamils, in which the bridegroom makes valuable presents to the father and relatives of the bride.
Gandhorra, in which the parties are mutually agreed. This is considered to include the Swayamvara, in which a princess voluntarily chooses a husband.
Rokshaaa the violent abduction of a maiden after defeating or slaying her relations.
Paixacha, the violation of a girl when asleep, or in liquor, or of weak intellect.
Mann says, The first six ceremonies in direct order are by some held as valid in the case of a priest,' etc. Mann utterly reprobates the idea of Gandharva marriage. In chap. iii. para. 32, he says that by the Brahma, Deva, Rishi, and Praja pati marriages only are born sons illumined by the Veda, learned men, beloved by the learned, adorned with beauty and with the quality of goodness, wealthy, etc., performing all duties, and living a hundred years • while from the other four marriages are produced sons acting cruelly, speaking. falsely, abhorring the Veda and the duties prescribed in it. And further, he declares that the son of a Brahma marriage, or wife by the first ceremony, redeems from sin if he perform virtuous acts, ten ancestors, ten descendants, and himself the twenty-first person. A son born of a wife by the Deva nuptials, redeems seven and seven in higher and lower degrees ; of a wife by the Arslia, three and three; of a wife by the Praja patya, six and six. From the blameless nuptial rites of men springs a blameless progeny ; from the reprehensible, a reprehensible offspring. Let mankind, therefore, studiously avoid the culpable forms of marriage.' By culpable marriage, etc., great families are sunk to a low state.' Adi Sur, the founder of the Sen dynasty, brought from Kanouj five Sagnic Brahmans of the tribes or gotra Sanhila, Kashyapa, Vatsa, Saverna, and 13harudwaja. Sudra families, Ghose, 131tose, Dutt, Matra, and others, accompanied them, and these take the positionof Kuhn Kayasths. In the reign of Bullal Sen, about 284 years before the Muhammadan invasion, all these Kulin Brahmans and Kuhn Sudras had greatly increased, and though degenerated in learning, they arro gated to themselves a position above all the Sapta-sali or aboriginal Brahmans. Bullal Sen ennobled the Brahmans by giving to them the title of Kuhn. The Kulin 13rahman subsequently consented to marry the daughters of the aboriginal Brahman ; these eagerly seek alliances with the Kulin, who have established a scale of fees for condescending to accept a daughter of an inferior. They marry for gold. Of the Kayasths who came from Kanouj, Bhose, Ghose, and Mittra were ennobled by Bullal Sen with the title of Kulin Kayasths. Hass, Day, Dutt, Guha, Kar Paula, Sen, and Singh bold a second rank.