Ilimalaya.—The two sections of the Himalaya present almost insurmountable physical obstacles to communication between the countries which they divide, thereby separating the Bhoti or people of Tibet from the Hindu family of India. The dis tinction of climate is not less positively marked by the lines of demarcation between the cold and dry climate of Tibet with its dearth of trees, and the warm and humid climate of India with its luxuriance of vegetable productions.
To the north of the Eastern Himalaya, in Tibet, lies a vast little known tract, in which rise the head-waters of the Yang-tze-kiang, the Lantsan or Cambodia river, and the Nu or Salwin, which is identified by Chinese geographers with the Nu-king.
Western Tibet is a highly mountainous region lying on both sides of the river Indus, with its longer axis directed, like that _river, from south east to north-west. It is bounded on the north east by the Konen Lun chain of mountains, by which it is separated from the plains of Yarkaiid. On the south-east its boundary is formed by the ridge which separates the waters of the Indus from those of the San-pu. To the north-west and south-west its boundaries include the whole of the valley of the Indus and its tributaries down to about 6000 feet above the level of the sea a considerable portion of the upper course of the Sutlej down to between 9000 and 10,000 feet, and small portions of the upper course of the Chenab, of the Ganges (Jahnavi), and of the Gogra. Every part of Tibet is traversed by ranges of mountains which have their origin either in the Konen Lou on the north, or in the Trans-Sutlej Himalaya on the south.
The Himalaya mountains are nowhere under 15,000 feet, usually exceeding 17,000 and 18,000 feet, and rise in isolated peaks or groups of peaks from 21,000 to 29,000 feet. The name in San skrit signifies the abode of snow ; and Pliny (list. Nat. vi. p. 17) was aware of the significa tion of the name, for he says, Imaus incolarutn lingua nivorum significans. To the south of the great Kashmir valley are a varied series of hills running off from the Panjal mountains, and form ing the elevated country between the Chenab and Jhelum, including Rajauri. The Panjal mountains are the continuation of the culminating summits that form the Southern Himalaya. Beyond the Jhelum we have a continuation southward of that long mountain series which forms the Himalayan wall of the Kaglian valley. On this is situated the bill station of Murree ; this range may be taken as almost the limit of the Himalaya. Beyond this we have the whole hill country of Hazara up to the Indus. Besides these ranges, there are endless subordinate though important divisions.
In the Western Himalaya, the average elevation of Kashmir valley is between 5000 and 6000 feet above the sea. Huramuk Mount, 13,000; Pir Panjal, 15,000 ; average of the valley of Indus (N. of Kashmir vale), 6000 to 7000 feet. Moun tains on each side rising from.6000 to 8000 feet higher.
The Bara Lacha range is a part of the Northern Himalaya; it was regarded by Alexander Cunning ham as the western continuation of the Himalaya. The Bara Lacha separates the Indite: river from its first affluents, as the Eastern Himalaya separates the Tshang-po from the Ganges.
The Khatak range continues the boundary to the Indus, maintaining an average height of from 3000 to 5000 feet.
The Salt Range is a well-defined group of hills, varying from 2000 to 5000 feet at extreme elevations ; it is remarkably scant of vegetation. The name has been given by geographers from its productiveness of rock-salt at the mines of Kheura and other places. But the range is known to natives by a variety of names. There are peaks called Karnli, Kundal, Sardi, Tilla, Bhulla, Kheura, Kas Gabhir, Kas Sangli and Chitta Hills, with many others both of the Shahpur and Jhelum districts. The Salt Range generally is called Khawa. The range runs across the Sind Sagur Doab between the Jhelum and the Indus, crossing it from east to west, between the parallels of lat. 32° 22' and 33° N., and long. 71° 30' and 73° 30' E. It starts with three spurs or prongs, one on the east bank of the Jhelum, and two on tho right ; both continue separate as far as the Bunn Nalla, which joins the Jhelum river at Darapur and Rasul, and then unite into one range, which continues up to Kalabagh on the Indus.
The main range of the Western Himalaya includes the great peak (20,000 feet) of Dayamar or Nanga Parbat. Here the range is intersected by the Indus river, beyond which the snowy peaks extend westward between Swat and Chitral. At this point also the two ranges which enclose the Kaghan valley (traversed down the centre by the Nainsukh river) strike off in a S.E. direction. The southern range of the West Himalaya runs nearly parallel to time Indus, and some distance south of it. The provinces which it bounds are Kanawar and Spit', Lahoul, Kishtwar, Kashmir, and near the Indus the tract of hill country represented by Hazara and Marri. The most remarkable pendant to this central chain is the vast chain of mountains which, starting off near the 76th parallel of longitude at the Sheshanag peak, rims round, enclosing an irregular elliptical space, and rejoins the original range midway between the 75th and 76th parallels. The amphi theatre thus formed is the Kashmir valley ; the mountain ranges enclosing it, which form as it were a loop depending from the main line, are known* by the name of the Panjal, or the Pir Panjal, the Snowy Panjal, the Panjal of Banihal. This chain of hills separates Kashmir from Kisht war on the cast, and from Hazara on the west. The eastern portion of the central range has another range parallel to it on the south, enclosing the Chandra Bhaga or Chenab, and forming the valley of that river which runs among them. First, then, there is ' the Cis-Sutlej Himalaya, which runs downward towards the plains separating the Ganges basin from the valley of the Beas, in cluding the Suket and Mandi territory. Beyond this comes the Dhauladhar range (in which are Dharmsala and other well-known places), separat ing the valley of the Bens from Chamba and the valley of the Ravi ; and then a system, rather than a definite chain, of hills separating the Ravi from tho Chenab.