From his researches, M Berzelius draws the following conclusions. Inorganic nature differs from organic, in the circumstance that the former is composed of binary com binations (combinations of two elements) existing alone, or combined among themselves. Every inorganic sub stance, whatever be the number of its elements, is capa ble of being decomposed into binary combinations, and of being recomposed from them ; so that in all inorganic substances, the compound bodies of the first order, that is to say, bodies compounded immediately of elements, contain but two of those elements. What still farther characterizes inorganic composition, is, that, on seeking the number of molecules contained in each compound par ticle, whatever be the number of elements, one of them is found to appear there only by a single molecule ; except in some saline combinations, where two molecules of one of the combustible radicals are in a few cases combined with three of the other.
In organic nature, compound bodies of the first order, or bodies composed immediately of elements, contain al ways more than two, and oxygen is constantly, without exception, one of them. None of those elements is of necessity single ; and their combinations appear to be capable of taking place, according to an almost infinite number of proportions ; from which results a boundless variety of organic substances composed of 3 and 4 elements. Upon this principle we can understand how nature, without violating the laws of chemical proportions, may produce several different species of sugars, of gums, starch, resins, and so forth ; because the particle of cane-sugar, for example, being composed of 10 0 + '12 C a + 21 H, by adding or subtracting a molecule of any one of its ele ments, there would result a different body, the elements and composition of which are, however, too little altered to make it cease from being sugar, though of another species.
As to ammonia, the composition of which is not to be found in any of the tables given above, Berzelih con siders it as a production of organic nature, formed accord ing to the same principle as other such productions ; that is to say, of oxygen combined with two combustible radi cals, hydrogen and the supposed radical of azote. The combination consists in the present case of one molecule of oxygen, one of the radical of azote, and six of hydrogen. Other chemists consider it as compounded of three mole cules of hydrogen, and one of azote.
Some time previous to the labours of Berzelius, 1\IM. Gay Lussac and Thenard had analyzed several animal and vegetable substances by burning them with superoxygenat ed muriate of potass. Many of their results coincide pretty nearly with those of Berzelius; others differ from them. Determinate proportions had not then become an object of attention to chemists ; and consequently MM. Gay Lussac and Thenard have but slightly considered them. They regard vegetable substances as composed of water and carbon, whenever hydrogen and oxygen appear in the proportions forming water. They regard animal substances as composed of water, ammonia, and carbon, having sometimes one element in excess, sometimes another. This idea, however, in their use of it, amounts to nothing more than a mode of exhibiting those propor tions which subsist among the elements. After the work of Gay Lussac and Thenard, M. de Saussure engaged in the analysis of alcohol and ether. He performed his experiments with great care. Following the method of the chemists just mentioned, he considers alcohol as -com pounded of two parts by weight of olefiant gas, with one part of water, both reduced to their elements ; and ether, as compounded of four parts by weight of olefiant gas, and one of water. Though it cannot be affirmed that M. de Saussure has deceived himself in assigning these propor tions, it is nevertheless clear that his mode of considering organic composition renders it absolutely analogous to that of inorganic substances. Under this point of view, it is
impossible to understand those innumerable variations which occur in bodies of a similar nature; because if those combinations of carbon and olefiant gas with water took place according to the laws of chemical proportions, as they are obeyed by all binary combinations, the actual mul tiplicity of organic combinations could not possibly exist, and the whole would remain confined within the narrow limits prescribed to inorganic nature.
After this historical exposition of the leading facts re lative to chemical proportions, with the various modes employed to explain them, and elicit their general laws, some observations will be necessary with regard to the speculative part of the subject. We shall conclude by detailing the opinions entertained upon this subject by the most illustrious chemists of our age.
The state of philosophy, it is clear, produces a con siderable influence on the degree of interest excited by each fresh step in the sciences; and frequently the colour assumed by a new discovery depends altogether on this circumstance. In former ages, the ideas entertained con cerning the interior constitution of bodies were coarse, as well as quite imaginary. A more refined spirit of philo sophy rejected and turned them into ridicule. Kant, the tar-famed philosopher of Konigsberg, founded a system altogether new, maintaining that the existence of all things depends on two opposite forces, the one of which, acting by itself would concentrate all the matter of the universe into a mathematical point ; whilst the other, on a similar sup position, would diffuse it to an infinite extent. The strug gle of these two forces constitutes matter, the diversities of which result from the different proportions of those two opposite powers. This system has been named that of Dualism, or the Dualistic system. Whilst admiring the sagacity with which the author has developed his system, rendered still more striking by the posterior electio-che mical discoveries, which are almost foreseen by it ; one cannot avoid astonishment at this entire annihilation of matter. The genius of Kant soon awakened a crowd of philosophic minds, possessing more or less elevation, who continued to philosophise on the subjects connected with chemistry and physics, and erected what they called a Philosophy of Nature, (Xatur-Philoso/ihie in German.) Nearly all these philosophers were destitute of knowledge in the sciences, which by a priori speculations they un dertook to reform ; they endeavoured to supply the want of real information by systems of anticipations. At the time when a philosophy resembling in some respects a contagious malady of the soul, had thus infected a multi tude of understandings, particularly in Germany, Mr. Dalton appeared with his atoms; but, in contrast with Kant, neglecting to adopt in his system the forces on which those combinations depend, and considering no thing but matter alone. Whilst in the system of Kant every thing is impenetrable, every thing, with Dalton, is mere juxtaposition among certain figures which he at tempts to trace. At first, therefore, no attention was paid to this latter system ; but Dr. Thomson, an English che mist, of high celebrity as an author, by publishing the opinions of Dalton in his writings, and showing what might be their real value, contributed greatly to produce a fa vourable impression on the public. And thus, notwith standing the sneers of a pretended • spirit of philosophy, though stigmatized as rude, because they rendered things palpable, so to speak, yet here and there atomic ideas and the corpuscular theory took root, and the labours we have just surveyed were the result.