The imperfection of the general administration of justice under the feudal system, rendered this regular military or ganization more necessary, and afforded constant occasion for keeping alive a warlike spirit. As each member of the empire was supposed to be entitled to refuse a partial judge, and appeal to his sword, the first wars of the Italian cities with each other, or against the powerful nobles in their vicinity, were not considered as acts of rebellion, but merely as those measures for self-defence, which it was competent for them to adopt in common with the other vassals of the empire. The cities of Milan and Pavia were the first whose private wars attract attention. Their first open rupture arose from their espousing opposite sides, on the double election of Henry II. and Ardoin.
At a subsequent period, the city of Milan ventured, in defence of the church, to declare war on the emperor Conrad, who, in an attack on that city was repulsed with loss. It was during this war that Eribert, archbishop of 111ilan, invented the " carroccio," a device which was im mediately adopted by all the Italian cities. This was a kind of four-wheeled waggon painted red, and drawn by four pair of oxen, completely covered with housings of red cloth. In the middle of the car there was a very long red pole, surmounted with a gilded globe, under which was displayed the banner of the city, and still lower an image of Christ on the cross, with its hands extended, appearing to bless the army. Behind,was a stage occupied by a band of musicians, and before another, where some chosen sol diers were placed to defend the sacred car. As the loss of the " carroccio," like the ark of the covenant of the Is raelites, was regarded most fatal and disgraceful, no expe dient could have been better devised for giving to the half trained infantry of the cities, that solidity which alone could enable them to withstand the shock of the heavy armed cavalry of that age. Crowded around the palladium of their liberties, they presented on every side au impene trable mass to their assailants ; and, if obliged to retreat, the slow motion of the a carroccio" prevented that move ment from degenerating into a disorderly flight.
Under a constitution, that thus, at once kept alive the flame of civil liberty and military glory, the cities of Lom bardy had gradually attained to independence. Those no bles who had formerly exercised over them no small de gree of authority, and to whom they had been accustomed to look up as their defenders, now in their turn began to consider it not only honourable, but prudent to be enrolled among their citizens.
The already flourishing commerce of the commercial cities of Pisa, Venice, and Genoa, afforded a ready market for the products of the soil; and even this species of traffic was the mean of diffusing a considerable degree of wealth among the inland cities.
The long continued struggles between the Saxon princes and the popes, confirmed the independence of the Lom bard cities ; as the former, in order to secure their attach ment, added considerably to their privileges, while the latter inculcated the spirit of resistance against a foreign ruler. Accustomed, too, during this period of anarchy, to trust to their own resources alone, the ties which connect ed them with the empire were insensibly weakened, and the Italian citizen's feelings of patriotism were confined within those walls which afforded him the protection which his German sovereign could not now secure.
During the years that intervened between the peace of Worms and the death of Henry V. little occurred to inter rupt the tranquillity of Italy ; and the only warlike events recorded, are the conquest of Lodi and Como by the Mila nese, and their long contest with the city of Cremona.
The death of the emperor without issue, however, gave rise to a contest of greater general interest, and more lasting effects. The partizans of the four last emperors in Germany had been denominated Ghibelines, from G uci henna, or Waiblem!a, a castle among the mountains of Hertleld, which had been the ancient seat of their family. Their opponents received the name of Guelphs, from the appellation of the Dukes of Bavaria, the most powerful rival of the reigning family. As, however, the Bavarian family had always protected the popes during their con tests with the two last emperors in Italy, the names Guelph and Ghibeline soon came to denote the different parties of the pope and the emperor. Ott the death of die emperor Henry V. his nephew Frederic, duke of Suabia, aspired to the clown. The diet, however, influenced by the arch bishop of Mentz, the enemy of the Ghibelines, elected Lo thaire duke of Saxony, who was intimately connected with the Guelphs. Frederic immediately took up arms ; and his brother, Conrad, duke of Franconia, having returned from the Holy Land, assumed the title of king, with the consent of his brother, and immediately proceeded to Milan, where he was crowned king of Italy.