The soil of Hindostan exhibits fewer varieties than might be expected in such a vast tract of country. Lr the whole of that district which is watered by the Ganges, the most prevalent soil is a rich black mould, evidently of alluvial origin. No other soil appears between the Tipporah hills on the east, and the district of 13urclwana on the west, nor below Dacca and Borleah to the north ; nor is there any substance so coarse as gravel, either in the Delta, or near er the sea than 400 miles along the course of the Ganges at Oudanulla. At this place, a rocky point, evidently stretching from the base of the neighbouring hills, projects into the river. In other pits of Bengal and the adjacent provinces, there is a considerable extent of clayey soil ; and that this was the original soil, where the black mould is now found, is proved by the appearance of the beds of the rivers, which are of clay. The substratum of the soil in this part of Hindostan Proper is in many places calcare ous; in others clay ; and in a few instances rocky. The soil of the Punjab resembles that which chiefly prevails in Bengal, and is equally fertile. As we approach to the south-west into Sinde and Guzerat, the soil becomes more sandy. In Mahwah, it is a deep, black, rich mould. Of this kind of soil there is one variety, named by the natives eurey, which is deemed very unhealthy. The whole of the plains of Chitteldroog, in the Mysore, which is 10 miles from north to south, and 4 from east to west, consists of this kind of black mould to a great depth. The provinces of Guriclwana and Orissa contain the largest proportion of poor unproductive soil, perhaps, in all Hindostan. To the south of these provinces, the soil near the coasts both of Malabar and Coromandel is sandy, and generally of a poor quality. It is more fertile, however, as the mountains are approached. In the province of Malabar, the soil at the foot of the low hills which intervene between the sea and the Ghauts, is a red clay, or brick earth. On the Coro mandel side, the sandy soil continues nearly to the foot of the eastern Chants. 'the soil on the Table-land, and also in the extreme southern provinces of India, is of various quality ; but, in general, a loam, on rock, very fertile.
IT is foreign to the nature and object of this article, and would extend it far beyond its proper limits, to enter fully into the subject of the landed tenure in IIindostan, ly as, with respect to some points of it, there is consider able difference of opinion among the best informed authors. 'We allude particularly to the dispute which was for a long time carried on regarding the rights and original character of the zemindars. There can be no doubt, that, in the most ancient time of Ilindoo history, the property of the land was vested in the sovereign ; and the opinion, that the zemindars were merely collectors of the revenue, scents the more probable. Indeed, there is a common saying among the Itiltrattas, " that the daughter belongs to her parents, but the land to the king." Our most accurate source of information on the subject of the tenure of land in llindostan, before the arrival of the INIahomedan conquerors, is derived flow the Institutes of Nlenon : these were drawn up about 1300 years before Christ. in these Institutes there are vet y minute and par ticular regulations on the subject of the rent of land, from Nvhich it appears, that the sovereign in most parts was the proprietor. The medium rent was estimated at a sixth part of its produce; but it varied considerably, according to the degree and quantity of labour which the natute of the soil and other circumstances required. If the lands were very unfertilc, and necessarily required a very con siderable degree of labour, only an eighth or a twelfth of the produce was taken. Under the pressure of great difficulty or danger in the state, as in the case of invasion or war, the fourth part of the produce was collected as rent. In every instance, the Institutes expressly enacted, that what remained should belong to the Ryot, or cultivator. This rent was, in the most ancient times, paid in kind, but afterwards it was paid in kind or money.
The produce of the crop was ascertained as nearly as possible before the harvest commenced, in the presence of the inhabitants of the village, by skilful and impA•tial per sons, %vim, in the adjustment of their business, were ma terially aided by a reference to the produce of former years, as recorded by the accountant of the village. As
these persons were appointed by the collectors of the rent for government, it was in the power of the Ryots, if they were not satisfied with the estimate of the crop, to make another survey by people of their own choice ; and the estimates differed much, a third survey was made under the direction of the village officers. The share of the cultivator was greatest on the plantation or garden culture, on account of the very great labour in the ma nagement, and the distance and hazard of carrying the produce to market. The rent of this land, as well as that levied on the small grains, was always paid in mo ney, and was fixed. Those lands which required artificial means to water them paid a smaller portion of rent than those which were fertilized by the periodical rains.
There were, however, certain portions of land attached to each village, which, paid no rent to the sovereign, or only a very low rent. These were small allotments for the support of the Pagoda Establishment and their priests; for charitable uses, such as keeping up the choultries ; for the accommodation of travellers ; and for the support of the Brahmins and bards. After the conquest, allotments of land were also for the support of their tem ples, burying places, and monks, and for furnishing the lights which it is customary to burn at \lahomedan tombs. The local officers of government had also allotments of rent-free lands. But the allotment to the different village servants was most characteristic of the ancient Ilindoo constitution, and therefore requir:s to be particularly no ticed. It is thus described in the Fifth Report on the Af fairs of the East India Company, already referred to : "A village, geographically considered, is a tract of country comprising some hundreds or thousands of acres of ara ble and waste land. Politically viewed, it resembles a cor poration or township. Its proper establishment of officers and servants consists of the hollowing descriptions : The Potail, or head inhabitant, who has the general superin tendence of the affairs of the village, settles the disputes of the inhabitants, attends to the police, and performs the duty of collecting the duties within his village. The Cur nam, who keeps the accounts of cultivation, and registers every thing connected with it. The Talliar and 'lode ; the duty of the former appearing to consist in gaining in formation of crimes and offences, and in escorting and protecting persons travelling from one village to another ; the province of the latter appearing to be more immedi ately confined to the village, consisting, among other du ties, in guarding the crops and assisting in measuring them. The boundary-man, who preserves the limits of the village, or gives evidence respecting them in cases of dispute. The superinteudant of the tanks and water course distributes the water for the purposes of agricul ture. The Brahmin, who performs the village worship. The schoolmaster, who is seen teaching the children in the villages to read and write in the said. The Calendar Brahmin, or astrologer, who proclaims the lucky or unpro pitious periods for sowing or threshing. The smith and the carpenter, who manufacture the implements or agri culture, and build the dwelling of the Ryot. The potman, or potter. The washer-man. The barber. The cow keeper, who looks after the cattle. The doctor. The dancing-girl, who attends at rejoicings. The musician and the poet."—Such was the establishment of a village in all parts of during the independence of the native Hindoo governments, and such it is at present in some parts. To all the members of this establishment a certain portion of land was allotted, according to their rank and the importance of their duties. Besides these allotments to them, the Pagoda establishment, the choul tries, the local officers of government, &c. they were each entitled to certain small shares of the crops of the village, which were set apart for them previously to the division of the produce between the sovereign and the cultivator. The Alahomedans also made large grants of land, under the name of Saghires, to such officers as were high in • civil and military rank.