Tillage, in the early ages, was performed by hand labour ; but in modern times, the plough has been the universal instrument used for executing this necessary and important branch of rural work. In no other way can large fields be turned over, because the expense of digging with the spade, the only other method of tu•n ing over the ground, would much exceed any profit that could be reaped. Spade-work, however, is almost uni versally used in garden culture, where the plants raised are of greater value than those cultivated in the fields ; though the nearer that field culture can be brought to what is exercised in a garden, so much more may the practice of the art be considered as approximating in perfection to that of the other.
Obstructions to Tithwe.
In a work of this kind, it is unnecessary to enlarge the way by which tillage may be successfully ex ecuted. It is proper to state, however, that stones lying above or below the surface are the most formidable obstruction to perfect tillage. On stony ground, the work is not only imperfectly executed, but in many cases the implement is broken to pieces, and a considerable portion of time lost before it is repaired, and put in order. The removal of stones, therefore, especially of such as are below the surface, ought to be a primary object with every agricultui ist ; because a neglect of this kind may afterwards occasion him considerable loss and inconvenience. In our practice we have ascertain ed, that rocky fields are ploughed at an expense nearly double of what was required upon others under different circumstances; because the ploughman, from necessity, is obliged to go slowly and with caution. In such situ ations the evil hardly admits of correction, because the substratum is almost of the same nature; and the rocks w high appear may be considered in the light of excres cences from the substratum ; but where single fixed stones appear in an arable field, they ought to be re mov•d immediately, although the closeness of their texture may render the assistance of gunpowder neces sary. It deserves attention, that very fine soil is always in contact with rocks of this description ; and that by gaining the use of it, much benefit is derived, inde pendent of the facility wilich is thus afforded to the ploughman's operations.
To drain the ground, in other words, to lay it dry. also facilitates tillage exceedingly ; fur ploughing can not be performed with advant ige, where either the surface or the subsoil is wet. In tact, every branch of good husbandry is intimately connected with another ; and the practice of one branch is necessarily much af fected by the way in which others are executed. To
drain land well, therefore, materially promotes good tillage ; and by good tillage the beneficial effects of manures are considerably increased. To discharge one of these fundamental duties of the husbandman, while the others are neglected, can only be regarded as per forming a duty which will yield small benefit to those concerned ; but to fulfil the whole duties incumbent on the husbandman, namely, to keep his land dry, clean, and rich, must be estimated as the acme of perfection in the rural art.
On the Utility of Summer Fallow.
To return to our first definition of tillage, wherein it is characterized as the operation by which the soil is cleaned or rendered free of weeds, we must observe, that the only sure and certain way of accomplishing this object is by ploughing in the summer months, when the ground is dry, and when, by the influence of sun and air, the weeds may be destroyed with facility. Sel dom at ally other period is the soil much benefited by ploughing, unless so far as a seed-bed is thus procured for the succeeding crop; and though the situation or state of the ground, when these intermediate ploughings are bestowed, is of importance in judging of their uti lity, yet the radical process of summer fallow cannot, by any means, he altogether dispensed with. Though, if the winter and spring ploughings are executed under favourable circumstances, and plenty of manure is at hand, it may be delayed for a greater number of years than is otherwise practicable, if good husbandry is to be maintained.
In judging of these things, an extensive practice, in almost every kind of soil, has been our guide ; and, though free from prejudice, we are compelled to declare, that without summer fallow, or, which is the same thing, without working the ground in the summer months, perfect husbandry is unattainable on all heavy or cold soils, and upon every variety incumbent on a close or retentive bottom. No doubt a bare or naked fallow is not necessary upon light free soils; because such may be worked in the months of lay and June, and afterwards cultivated with tur-ips. Fais exception we have uniformly allowed, hut farther we cannot go. Even the potatoc husbandry on such soils is, to a certain degree, imperfect, as may easily be ascertained by ex amining land so cultivated, after the crop is taken up.