The Grand Lama, while he is the spiritual head, is also the civil ruler of Thibet. But his civil power is merely nominal, and Thibet enjoys only the sha dow of independence. The Lama, in order to de vote himself more fully to spiritual things, was al ways in the habit of appointing a tipa or secular regent; but this office, as shall be immediately more fully shown, is now in the hands of the Chinese, who may be said virtually to govern the country in question. Of the laws of Thibet, we have little in formation, but they are supposed to resemble those of Hindostan. It has been supposed that the Thi betians cannot raise an army of more than 50,000 men. Owing to their poverty, their revenue cannot be very ample.
The language of Thibet bears a striking resem blance to the Chinese, but, like the European tongues, it reads from left to right. Printing, which was early introduced, is performed not by movable types, but by means of set forms, com posed of wood, as in China PRINTING.) Fi brous roots of a small shrub serve the purposes of paper; and the leaves of a book, when finished, are loosely put together and placed between two equal slips of wood as covers. The character which is employed for printed works is called uchen, and bears some analogy to the Sanscrit: that used for correspondence and the more ordinary business is termed umin. The Thibetian writings are said to be no where equalled for obscurity : but of the real nature of their literature, if such a term is appli cable to them, scarcely any thing is known. Cap tain Turner found the Thibetians acquainted with the satellites of Jupiter and the ring of Saturn, and the existence of the planets. They were acquainted also with the game of chess ; and the rules and movements which they adopted are those which obtain in Europe. Their year is lunar, and the month consists of 29 days. Their knowledge of history and geography is extremely limited.
According to the official Chinese geography, Thi bet contains sixteen towns; but most of them, pro perly speaking, are only villages in the neighbour hood of some monastery or temple. Lassa is the capital, situated on a plane near the centre of the kingdom. It is the seat of government, and is crowded with noble and royal personages, who come from various parts of Asia to pay homage, and of fer gifts to their earthly divinity. Within seven
miles of it is Patala, " the holy mountain," on which is the temple of the Grand Lama. Ascardo or Eskeidon is the capital of Little Thibet. Other towns are unknown.
Of the history of this country scarcely any thing is known. It is mentioned by the ancients, under the vague name of Scythia extra Imaum. Marco Polo did not enter the country, but he gives a cu rious, and not very inaccurate description of it un der the name of Tebeth. Lamaism was established about the beginning of the eighth century; but the remote situation of the country, and the quiet na ture of the succession of the Lamas, afford no ma terials for history; at least none interesting to Eu ropeans. The Chinese, by interfering in some intestine commotions, obtained the ascendancy in 1720. But this ascendancy became more ample towards the end of last century. In 1792, Thibet was overrun by the Nepaulese; but the Chinese in terposed, defeated the invaders in several actions, and extorted from them an ignominious peace. This established on a firm foundation the Chinese influence in Thibet. The country submitted to the rule of a governor sent from China; and a constant communication is maintained between the two na tions. The Chinese, however, most cordially re cognize the spiritual sovereignty of the Lama, and even nominally his civil authority, though in truth this latter is solely in their ()nit hands. The Chi nese, as by their timid and jealous policy they ex cluded foreign merchants from the country, have, as previously mentioned, forbidden all intercourse between it and Bengal, to the great disadvantage of both countries. Bootan is tributary to Thihet; and Little Thibet, which at one time seems to have been an independent territory, now forms an inte gral part of the country, of which we now conclude the account.
For some incidental notices respecting Thibet, see T'oyages per Pallas; Descriptions Geograph. de la Chine et de la Tartarie Chinoise, par Du Halde, and other works; but the best and only full account is contained in Turner's Account of an Embassy to the Court of the Teshoo Lama, in 1783, published in 1800. See also Murray's Hist. See. of Discoveries and Travels in Asia. (T. M.)