From the imbecility of Ivan, and the youth of Peter, who was now only ten years of age, the whole power of the government rested in Sophia, and the minister Galitsin. By a revolt of the Streltsi, a kind of national militia, this ambitious princess's plans were thwarted, and Peter's party gained much strength. A war with -the Turks was resolved on, and Galitsin, led by his vanity, or cajoled on purpose to get rid of him, took the command of the army, for the duties of which he was totally inadequate, as was proved by the result. Two campaigns were passed in marches and counter marches, and nearly 40,000 men were lost between un successful skirmishes and disease. About the middle of the year 1689, Peter who had now attained his 17th year, succeeded in securing to himself the undivided sovereignty. Sophia was obliged to retire to the Novo Devitchei nunnery at and his brother Ivan, though still nominally Tsar, had voluntarily resigned all participation in the administration of affairs, and withdrawn to a life of obscurity. The first objects to which Peter directed his attention, were the establish ment of a regular and well-disciplined army, and the construction of a navy. Lefort, a Genevese, and Gor don, a Scotchman, were-of eminent service to him for the organization of the army; and he spared neither trouble nor expense so as to acquire a navy. As has been related in his life, he travelled into foreign coun tries, and worked like a common carpenter in the dock-yards, that he might become master of ship building. He prosecuted the war against the Turks with vigour and success, and made himself master of Azof. He formed a plan, with Augustus king of Poland, and Frederick king of Denmark, to deprive the young and inexperienced Charles XII. of his do minions, in which they entirely failed. Indeed, at Narva, with a very small body of troops, Charles ob tained a most signal victory over an immense Russian army. After this Peter evacuated all the provinces that he had invaded. Instructed, however, by disas ters and skirmishes, in which he was at times victori ous, Peter's troops at length defeated the Swedes, which animated them with new courage. Notwith standing this, they suffered a disgraceful defeat near the Dneper, when the northern Tsar was glad to make overtures for an accommodation. The advance of Charles XII. to within a hundred leagues of Moscow— his deception by the traitor, Mazeppa, ataman of the Kozaks, who promised more assistance than he could give—the difficulties and hardships his army encoun tered near the river Disne, in a forest above forty leagues in extent, and filled with rocks, mountains, and marshes—and his signal defeat, after gaining different, victories at the battle of Poltava, are well-known events, which have been alluded to under SWEDEN. Charles escaped with great difficulty, and at length reached Otchakof, on the frontiers of Turkey. While Peter was reaping the advantages of his victory, Charles found an invaluable friend in AchInet II. who then filled the throne of the east. In 1714. this sovereign assembled an immense army, and made preparations to invade Russia. The Tsar having had intimation of his design, and expecting to receive great assistance from Kantemir, hospodar of Moldavia, and a vassal of the Porte, resolved to anticipate the Turks, and by rapid marches advanced as far as Yassy, the capital of that province, situated on the Preuth. Here he was surrounded, and but for the prudent and sage counsels of his consort Catharine I. he would most probably have been taken prisoner, or reduced to the most hu miliating terms. But by the treaty which was conclud ed, Peter was extricated from a dangerous enemy, and returned to his capital. Three years after the death of Charles, in 1718, a peace was concluded between Russia and Sweden. The Swedes ceded to Russia, Livonia, Esthonia, and Ingria, or part of Karelia, the territory of \Viburgh, the isle of Oesel, and all the other islands in the Baltic, from Courland to Wi burgh. For these concessions they received back Finland, which had been conquered by Peter, together with 2,000,000 dollars, and obtained some privileges.
After leading one of the most active, extraordinary, and useful lives as a sovereign, and repeatedly having known the extremes of good and had fortune, Peter died in the year 1725. He well merited the cognomen the Great, as well as the title of emperor, which he first assumed, and which has been ever since continued to his successors. In his public character, Peter must be allowed to have been a great politician, statesman, and general, although he made some important blun ders in all these capacities. He did not civilize his people, as is generally stated; but he laid, or extended widely, the basis of their civilization. Upon this basis a structure has been gradually rearing, which, it is to be hoped, will continue to prosper through a succes sion of reigns, until the demi-civilized inhabitants of the north shall be entitled to rank with the other states of Europe. He formed a navy in his empire; re-orga nised an army; promulgated useful laws; protected, and, to a certain extent, purified the religion of his country; introduced and fostered arts and sciences, and literature; and he ardently and successfully promoted the general improvement of Russia. lie founded Pe tersburgh, and made it his residence, and the capital. He extended the commerce of his empire, and gave every encouragement to trade and manufactures. He made canals, repaired roads, instituted regular posts, and gave regulations for a uniformity of weights and measures. Therefore, as a monarch, he claims our admiration, and with regret we turn to his character as a private individual. His tyranny and cruelty admit of no excuse. The extraordinary sacrifice of his son has been much admired, and we believe still more censured, because his reasons for such an act do not appear sufficiently valid, though sanctioned by a trial, or the form of a trial.
Peter was succeeded by his consort Catharine I. who had previously shown herself worthy of the imperial throne. During the reign of her spouse, she was dis tinguished as a woman of a dignified and noble cha racter. After she ascended the throne, she prosecut ed, with vigour and prudence, the plans commenced by Peter the Great. Her short reign of two years was characterised by forbearance and mercy. Peter the Great's grandson, Peter II. when only twelve years of age, succeeded Catharine. His reign of three years duration was more distinguished by court intrigue than interesting events. He died of the small-pox, when on the eve of his marriage in 1730. During the latter part of his reign he held his court at Moscow, a mea sure which gave great satisfaction to the nobles.
The male issue of Peter being now extinct, the Duke of Holstein, son to Peter's oldest (laughter, by the de claration of the late empress, was entitled to the crown; but the Russians, for political reasons, filled the throne with Ann duchess of Courland, second daughter to Ivan, Peter's eldest brother. Her reign was extreme ly prosperous, and though she accepted the crown un der limitations that were thought derogatory to her dignity, yet she broke through them all, and asserted the prerogatives of her ancestors. She was governed by her favourite Biron, whom she raised to the duchy of Courland. She had considerable influence in the affairs of Poland; she narrowly escaped a war with France; she ceded the territories on the shores of the Caspian, which had been seized by Peter the Great, in consideration of some privileges granted to the Russian merchants; she maintained a war against the Turks, and, after one army had been severely beat in the Krimea, she sent new forces, who overcame the Tartars, and desolated that peninsula; she took Otch akof, and subdued Moldavia; and after the loss of above 100,000 men, and vast sums of money, she con cluded a treaty with the Porte, by virtue of which Moldavia and Otchakof were given back, and Russia gained nothing, except permission to build a fortress upon the Don.