The history of medicine (anatomy) now becomes more and more multiplex ; new schools begin to be founded. Salerno, Naples, Mont pelier, Venice, Bologna, Prague, Vienna and Oxford successively built universities and at tracted the ablest minds in medicine. Scholars traveled from university to university to learn from a professor here and a professor there, and the fortunes of the universities rose and fell like the tides of the sea. In 1224 it is said that the University of Bologna alone had 10,000 students. Among the early names of this period of transition may be mentioned Lisf rant (1295) ; Mondino (1275-1327), who wrote the first anatomy since the time of Galen, and which reached 25 editions — he also suffered persecutions for his zeal in dissecting; Linacre (1461-1524), of England, was one of the earliest scholars to bring the results of the new awak ening to Oxford and to Cambridge; and Syl vius, or Jacques Dubois, a Frenchman, was an other of these great early anatomists of the reconstruction period. Sylvius first arranged all of the muscles of the human body and gave them the names which, for the most part, they now carry.
Andreas Vesalius (1514-64), a Belgian, first studied at Louvain, and later became a pupil of Sylvius at Paris. At the age of 22 he became professor of anatomy at Padua, and at 29 issued a monumental work on anatomy. the best that had been given up to that time. He corrected many of Galen's errors and had a checkered career. General gross anatomy under Vesalius, who was a son, grandson and great grandson of a physician, began to assume more definite shape. In his student days at Paris under Sylvius, anatomy was taught upon the animal cadaver. Sylvius, however, was an un compromising Galenist, and, although he made dissections, he followed Galen's treatises in very servile fashion. He was practically the last of his school, and his doctrines were swept away by the light thrown by this indefatigable seeker after truth as drawn from nature rather than from books. CMy study of anatomy,' said he, *would never have succeeded had I, when working at medicine at Paris, been willing that the viscera should be merely shown to me and to my fellow students at one or another public dissection by wholly unskilled barbers, and that in the most superficial way. I had to put my own hand to the business. ° Human dissection was rapidly and superficially practised, but Ve salius is known to have haunted cemeteries and gibbets to obtain human material. The results of his studies were published in 1543 in his masterpiece, 'De Humani Corporis Fabrics. Libri VII,' the first of a long series of more distinct modern treaties on physiology as well as anatomy. Vesalius may truly be said to have been the founder of modern biological science. "He brought into anatomy the new spirit of the time, the young men of the time who listened to the new voice." Of the contemporaries of Vesalius many were almost as famous as he. Eustachius at Rome, and Fallopius at Paris, Ferrara and Padua corrected many of Vesalius's details, and Eustachius may be said to have been the first to call attention to the study of embry ology as an aid in the interpretation of gross anatomy. Both Eustachius and Fallopius made noteworthy additions to the knowledge of the ear. These were the days of enthusiasm in the discovery of new facts, and so great was the striving for the new culture that it is said that criminals were utilized for purposes of experi ment and dissection, probably after smothering. A large coterie of brilliant men lived at this time. Servetus (1509-53), a Spaniard, first
made out many of the true facts of the pulmo nary circulation. Cmsalpinus (1517-1603), a highly cultured scholar and a great botanist, was among the first to speak of the circulation of the blood. Varolius (1543-75) furthered the knowledge of the anatomy of the nervous system. Spigelius (1578-1625) made note worthy studies of the liver. Realdo Colombo (1494-1559), who succeeded Vesalius at Padua, and was subsequently professor of anatomy at Pisa, filled out the outline of Servetus. Some authorities claim that he stole the ideas and correctly described the pulmonary circulation, although he did not appreciate the corollaries of his discovery. He imitated Vesalius and his work in a bold reproduction of his friend's studies; and Fabricius (1537-1619), who suc ceeded Fallopius at Padua, built a special ana tomical amphitheatre where he taught anatomy to England s great anatomist Harvey.
The time had now come for a mind who could take this accumulating mass of anatomi cal facts, which after all were extensions in detail only of the old Hippocratic anatomy, and to discover new physiological principles, for it was noteworthy that although newer and better ideas of structure had been given, yet many of the old notions of function were still taught.
This was done by William Harvey of Eng land. He was born in 1578, studied at many universities, mainly at Cambridge and Padua, and in 1615 first clearly demonstrated the cor rect action of the heart and interpreted the his tory of the circulation of the blood. Harvey's old anatomical preparations of this age are still in existence. From this time onward newer interpretations were possible, and the study of anatomy and physiology, now correctly linked, made rapid strides. These newer vantage grounds of interpretation were further ex tended by the discovery of the microscope, and by this instrument the field of microscopical anatomy, or Histology (q.v.), was opened up, leading to far-reaching and important results to the welfare of mankind. The period of de tailed and special advance may be said to have been foretold in the newly revived study of physics by Borelli and his school, and the newer chemistry of Van Helmont won from the mys ticisms of alchemy. These united to interpret the results of anatomical research, and the gen eral history of the subject of anatomy widens out, fanlike, into its several specialties. The subject of anatomy now becomes lost in the history of interpretations and applications, and the further developments of these are consid ered in these volumes under their special heads where the developments of the various branches of anatomical research are considered. See ANATOMY, COMPARATIVE; ANTHROPOLOGY; BIOLOGY; CHEMICAL PHYSIOLOGY; CYTOLOGY; EMBRYOLOGY; HISTOLOGY; PATHOLOGY; PHYSI OLOGY; SURGICAL ANATOMY.
Bibliography.— The most• extensive of modern works on the history of anatomy is found with complete bibliography in Neuburger and Pagel's 'Handbuch der Geschichte der Medicin,' (2 vols., 1903) ; Garrison, 'History of Medicine' (1915) ; Buck, H.,