The second main distinguishing istic of Anglo-Saxon as compared with the English of the Middle and Modern English periods relates to its vocabulary. The Saxon vocabulary is practically a uni-lingnal one, whereas the tremendous transforming of French in the 13th and 14th turies, and of the Renaissance in the 15th and 16th centuries, upon English, have changed the language of the later periods into a bi-hngual tongue. Aside from an insignificant Celtic element, the greater but still comparatively slight influence of Latin learning and Latin Christianity on literary Anglo-Saxon, and toward the end of the Anglo-Saxon period, a small Scandinavian, loan element, taken from the Danish and Norse conquerors of England, the vocabulary of Anglo-Saxon is an etymolog ically pure one. New ideas imported into the life of the people were usually expressed by means of native words giving the language, to the historical student, an appearance of homo geneity and simplicity possessed by no later period of English.
(b) Anglo-Saxon literature is rarely pre served in contemporary documents, the main reason being that, in a method of manuscript transmission, early monuments are gradually altered to fit the contemporary conditions and tastes of successive later generations, with the consequence that the originals are either lost or destroyed. Since most Anglo-Saxon litera ture is also anonymous, it becomes necessary to determine its date and authorship, so far as this can be done, by the internal evidence of the works themselves, aided by such slight out side help as may be afforded by occasional al lusions in contemporary historical documents. Chronologically we may divide the literature of the whole period into three main groups: (1) the early or Anglian period, comprising chiefly poetical works composed in the latter half of the 7th and in the 8th century; (2) the Early West-Saxon period, comprising chiefly prose works written in the time of Alfred the Great; (3) the Late West-Saxon period, centring about the name of 1Elfric, in the late 10th and the early 11th centuries, com prising mainly works in prose but also a few attempts at a revival of the earlier poetry. The body of this literature may be most conven iently reviewed under the two general heads of poetry and prose.
Anglo-Saxon poetry has been preserved to modern times in several different manuscripts of miscellaneous content, the most important being the Book,' or Vercellen sis,' so called because the volume is now con tained in the cathedral library at Vercelli in northern Italy; the Book,) or Exoniensis,' still in the possession of Exeter Cathedral in England to the library of which it was pres nted about the year 1050 by Bishop Leofric; the (Junian manuscript' (Junius XI), in the Bodleian Library at Oxford; and the (Cotton Manuscript' (Cotton Vitellius A XV), in the British Museum, which contains the unique copy of the (Beowulf.' These manu
scripts were all written in the late 10th and early 11th centuries, although the period of the original composition of the works which they contain is of course much earlier. As to met rical form, however, the whole body of this poetry is remarkably homogeneous, and a single description will answer for all of it. The normal line of Anglo-Saxon verse consists of two halves, bound together by alliteration, alliteration consisting in the identity of initial consonants, or in the case of vocalic allitera tion, the alliteration of any vowel with any other vowel. Each half line contains at least one alliterating syllable, although one may con tain two and the other one, or both may contain two. Normally the number of alliterating syl lables in a full line cannot be more than four and is usually less. Each half line contains two feet, the principle of the structure of the foot being accentual. Each half line contains at least two and no more heavily stressed syl lables, the metrical stress coinciding with the logical stress of the words, and at least two unstressed syllables, although the number of the unstressed syllables may vary within fairly wide limits. According to the order of the stressed and unstressed syllables the half lines fall into a limited number of types, consecutive passages being made up of half lines of the va rious types arranged in whatever order the poet pleases. Within the limits of its own system the scansion of Anglo-Saxon poetry is rigid and exact. The use of stanzaic forms, except in one or two sporadic instances, was unknown to the Anglo-Saxon poets. Not only in met rical form, but also in its use of the various devices of poetical ornament, the body of Anglo-Saxon verse is fairly constant for all periods. The simile is very rarely used, its place being taken by the metaphor of °kenning?) Specially characteristic of the poetic style is the device of by which an idea once expressed is repeated in several different forms by the use of synonymous terms. This gives to thepoetry a retarding effect which is often particularly noticeable, and, to our modern taste, particularly inappropriate, in the narra tive verse. The diction and tone of the poetry is elevated and dignified throughout, the poetic convention apparently not tolerating anything that approached °doggerel') in tone.