The services at the war office underwent le modifications, necessitated by new mili y and political considerations. The most iortant were: the creation of Under-Secre y of State for artillery and munitions (de e of 18 July 1915) was transformed into sister of Armament and War Equipment. Under-Secretary of State for Food was ated at the same time as the appointment of initions minister. He was later replaced by Under-Secretary for General Administra n, an office invested with a wider scope. On same day, also, 18 July 1915, an Under cretary of the Health (military) Service was pointed to replace the old health service. sally, an Under-Secretary of Aeronautics was pointed. A system of inspections organized supervise the proper execution of the goy nment's decrees and the strict observation of e law underwent certain transformations. s 15 Nov. 1915 the War Minister established K "inspection) districts, at the head of each ing a general assisted by a staff officer, the object being to see that the Dalbiez Law of 17 Aug. 1915 was- strictly applied. Later on these inspections were suppressed and replaced by a commission appointed to watch over the better utilization of the military resources of the country, several members of Parliament serv ing on this commission in collaboration with the military authorities. Apart from the in spections the object of which was to bring about a better utilization of the military re sources, technical inspectors were appointed for all branches of the army.
The preconceived idea of a short, violent conflict of great battles, or "open war fare,° calling for a thorough preliminary train ing, excluding all possibility of a progressive preparation, lead military advisers before the war to favor the system of officering the troops by professional soldiers. The result of this conception was that, at first, France did not make use of the vast resources capable of being tapped in her civilian population, and at the same time used up in the premier engage ments practically all her professional officers. If these latter had been more judiciously em ployed they would have been of the greatest value in future organizations for the instruc tion of new recruits. The question of officers was one presenting many difficulties which had to be surmounted. From the beginning it was resolved to make use of those officers pre viously liberated and returned to civil life. On 3 Aug. 1914 a decree Was issued canceling the old law regarding age limit, and on 26 August a Ministerial order defined the conditions un der which retired officers, or those having thrown up their commission, could be reinstated, the order also applying to non-commissioned officers. In this way the army immediately obtained a considerable number of officers and non-commissioned officers whose aid was most valuable in the various training centres. But the intense uninterrupted service soon told on these old servitors. Moreover, inexperienced in the ever-changing conditions of modern war fare it was with difficulty that they adapted themselves to new methods. However, it was not long before their ranks were swelled by wounded officers and non-commissioned officers, who although unfit for further active serv ice were able to render useful service in in structing the young recruits. It was, therefore, decided to replace gradually by wounded men those old instructors who returned, with re gret, to civilian life after having served their country to the best of their ability. By the terms of the law relative to promotion, no provision was made for the immediate replace ment on the spot of officers killed in action.
Decree of 26 Aug. 1914 provides that officers of all ranks may be promoted to a higher grade without regard to any previous seniority of rank, in a temporary capacity, and for the dura tion of the war, the same also applying to non commissioned officers. Thus, promotion may be granted, according to the needs of the serv ice, at once, even on the battlefield itself. Simi lar arrangements (Decree of 3 Dec. 1914) were made concerning the promotion of personnel in military bureaus.
Arrangements were also made to use as officers, after a special preparation, young men admitted after examination into the state mili tary schools (Ileole Polytechnique, acole Nor male Superieure, etc.). Examination for en trance to Saint Cyr was re-established. How ever, candidates seeking commission who re ceived their instruction at the training centres are only appointed officers after having served a certain time at the front. The losses sus tained in officers commanding the infantry be ing greatly superior to those in other branches of the army, a call was made on the cavalry to counterbalance this void. Successive drafts were made on this latter arm and amply justi fied the decree of 4 March 1916 in this respect. Finally, the continuation of hostilities served to provide both professional and amateur of ficers with a wider experience and resulted in progressively expunging certain natural prej udices existing amongst them, particularly as regards such vexed questions as rights of superior officers and rules governing promotion.
Troops, Armament, Material.— The time is not yet ripe to give precise details regarding the transformations made during the war in the armament and equipment of the troops. Suf fice it to say that such transformations are the result of carefully studied plans based on the most up-to-date principles. Open warfare having ceded the place to trench warfare it became imperative to increase in large propor tions the output of heavy artillery. To the old light field gun, whose number was daily increasing, new weapons of greater power and range were added. Moreover, trench warfare necessitated a large use of grenades and trench mortars of an approved new design. The un precedented use of machine guns was also a tremendous factor to be reckoned with in modern warfare. In addition to the foregoing weapons, the quick-firing rifle and bomb-throw ing' apparatus were invented and had to be manufactured on a large scale, while it should not be forgotten that sapping and mining was carried on daily along the whole of the vast front. These radical modifications of new fighting conditions necessitated a correspond ingly radical reorganization of the troops. The two or three machine gun sections per infantry regiment at the commencement of the war were soon transformed into numerous companies. The infantry company itself was obliged to model itself to suit new conditions. Hence forth it was composed of grenadiers (grenade or bomb throwers) and fusiliers (soldiers manipulating the new quick-firing rifles), while the infantryman proper with rifle and bayonet was divided up into the four sections of the company in such a way that each section was composed of two half sections, one of which included the specialists (grenadiers or fusiliers) and the other the ordinary rifleman. The bat talion transformed its fourth company into a machine gun company, fighting in ternary order. Certain of the cavalry units were sup pressed and among those retained some were formed into foot regiments.