In the meantime China was lulled by her reactionaries into a false security which proved disastrous when the days of trial came. In 1895, by the treaty of Shimonoseki, the inde pendence of Korea was recognized (its annexa tion to Japan occurred in 1910), and China promised to cede to Japan the Liaotung Penin sula with Port Arthur, the Pescadores and Formosa, paying also an indemnity of 200,000, 000 taels and granting to the Island Kingdom new and important commercial advantages. During the years from 1895 to 1897 Germany wrested from China the harbor of Kiao-chow and obtained a "sphere of influence" in the province of Shantung and the Yellow River Valley. But no sooner had German scored these successes than Great Britain presented a demand (1 July 1898) for the port of Weihaiwei, which was leased to her for 25 years. In the south the French took on lease the port of Kwangchow and the Bay of Pangchangwan. More interesting than the holding of harbors on lease, as indicating the .relations of the powers to each other and their spheres of in terest in China, were the many concessions of railroad, mining and other franchises made by China to England, Germany, Russia, France, Belgium and America. These foreign powers practically formed an "unholy alliance," as the Japanese called it; and their purpose was to "reform" China and to introduce there Western ideas and progressive methods. Their policy was welcomed by the enlightened Chinese, the °literati?' and by the better-educated element among the people; but it awakened dismay and anger among the conservatives and the reac tionary Manchus. On 12 Feb. 1912 the dy nasty of Manchu was overthrown and the con stitution of a republic formed on Western models was established.
Of all the great powers Russia had for a certain time the greatest opportunity toward de veloping its commercial and political activities in the Far East. The Russians had established themselves in large numbers in towns of Chi nese Manchuria, in Kiakhta, Mukden, Kirin and Tsitsihar. The navigation of the Ussuri and Sungari rivers fell wholly into their hands, and colonization in Manchuria was fostered under various pretexts. After the Boxer rising (1900) and the Portsmouth Treaty (5 Sept. 1905) Russia proceeded to carry out her rail way plans across Chinese territory, particu larly through Outer Mongolia. Under the Urga Convention of 3 Nov. 1912 Russia ob tained privileges and concessions to exploit the mining industries and construct the railroads in Outer Mongolia. But as soon as the terms of this convention were published the Republican Parliament in Peking clamored for war with Mongolia and with Russia. After protracted discussion a declaration was signed (3 Noy. 1913) between China and Russia by which Chi nese suzerainty over Outer Mongolia was recognized.
Russia's aggressive foreign policy in the Far East under the Romanov s rule had caused Japan to take into consideration the situation in Inner Mongolia, which borders on her sphere of interest in Manchuria. But these claims
were waived, and Japan contented herself in the treaty of 25 May 1915, with China's under taking to open in the interest of trade and for the residence of foreigners certain suitable places in eastern Inner Mongolia. The whole treaty, which incorporated also an exchange of notes regarding the non-alienation of territory in Fukien province for military or naval purposes, was intended to obtain for Japan a demarche and further freedom for commercial and industrial expansion.
As concerns the policy of the United States in the Far East, it has obtained neither terri torial interest nor great political influence there. America became more intensely con cerned in Far Eastern politics after the acqui sition of the Philippines in 1898. The Ameri can capitalists had secured rights to build a great trunk-line from Canton to Hankow. But this concession had been made over in 1904 to the Belgian syndicate on receiving com pensation of $6,700,000, so that the whole road from Peking to Canton seemed likely to fall under Franco-Belgian control. The American government merely satisfied itself with securing commercial advantages. In 1900 Secretary John Hay, by a statesmanlike diplomatic manceuvre, obtained from France, Germany, Great Britain, Italy, Russia and Japan what appeared to be a guaranty of the "open door" policy in the Far East—that is, equal commercial treatment of all —within their respective spheres of influence. In 1908 friendly notes were exchanged between Japan and the United States. Free and peace ful development of Japanese and American commerce in the Pacific Ocean and equal oppor tunity for foreign commerce and industry in China were the principles affirmed by the Jap anese Ambassador at Washington and Mr. Elihu Root. How different were the conditions under which these notes were penned from those existing in 1853 when Commodore Perry delivered his ultimatum to the Shogun! When the Great War began the Far Eastern Question was still unsettled. It was in August 1914 that the German and Austro-Hungarian war lords let loose their enormous armed forces on Serbia, Belgium, France and Russia. Great Britain took the part of the outraged peoples and asked the Japanese government for assist ance under the terms of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance of 1902 and 1911. On 23 Aug. 1914 the Mikado declared war on the Kaiser. Assisted by a small British force the Japanese uprooted the German settlement in the Shantung Penin sula, destroyed the great German naval base in the Pacific and prevented the Germans from organizing risings in China and Manchuria. On this occasion the Japanese lost a destroyer, a torpedo-boat and three mine-sweepers; also there were killed 416 and wounded 1,542; the British had 12 killed and 61 wounded. The German casualties are said to have been under 1,000.