That the new German spirit, created by the co-operation of the poets and philosophers, gradually became recognized as a powerful in fluence outside of Germany, that its political significance for the fatherland was emphasized, and that in place of the abstract cosmopolitan ism to which even Goethe and Schiller were inclined, the conception of nationality was established, was due to the Romantic 'School, which in the main was a continuation of the storm and stress period, particularly of Her der's ideas and discoveries. Two groups of writers may be distinguished in the Romantic School, an older and a younger one. Although the members of the older group, Friedrich Schlegel, Novalis, A. W. Schlegel, and L. Tieck, were lacking in plastic creative power and were frequently losing themselves in fantastic dreams or in the clouds of •myst:cism, they glorify the mission of the poet and revel in the enjoy ment and appreciation of beauty in art and nature. Hence they excel chiefly as critics, interpreters and translators, and the influence of their new approach to life upon art, music, science and even politics and religious life was extraordinarily great. It was the spirit of Romanticism which, in protest against ab stract rationalism of the 18th century, inspired the distinguished theologian and philosopher, iithdrich Sehleiertnacher (17681'1834) to -write his famous '(Reden fiber die and it was the same spirit from which emanated the Hegelian conception of the state as the -realization of the mind of the people or rthe :embodiment of the divine idea. To' the !Romantic School, finally, belongs the credit for the revival of the historical understanding and of the discovery of the beauty and greatness of German antiquity •s revealed in the art and literature of the Middle Ages, the investigation of which was undertaken by the brother's Grimm, by. L. Uhland and by their numerous followers, An even greater effect upon the awakening of national consciousness and the desire for German unity was made by the politi -cal humiliation and the military oppression to 'which Napoleon I had subjected the German people. The powerful and impressive 'Bedell an die deutsche Nation' by the great philoso pher, J. G. Fichte (1762-1814), the passionate and lofty patriotic lyrics of E. M. Arndt, Theo dor-Korner, Max von Schenkendorf and Fried -rich 'Ruckert, and the patriotic plays of the emi nent dramatist, H. •von Kleist, mused the nation from its political lethargy and despair, and -gave evidence 'of the transition from dreaming to action wench then took place in the German mind and affected future •literary expression.
The national hopes fanned by patriotic feel 'ing during the wars of liberation remained un ,fulfilled, however, and a period of political -stagnation and depression followed during -which the younger group of Romanticists, the great' singers, L. Uhland (1787-1862) and Jo 'seph von Eichendorff -(1788-1857), and the 'novelists, C. Brentano, A. von Arnim and E. Th. A. Hoffmann, hold the attention of the •nation. Other' writers such as the talented Austrian dramatists, F. Grillparzer (1791-1872) .rind A. von' Platen follow essen ,tially in the footsteps of the German classics, as had at' the beginning of the century Fried rich Holderlin (1770-1843), the author of the ',novel 'Hyperion,' a story full of patriotic and ,herbic prophecies, and of a collection -of lyrics of exquisite beauty. As the chasm between 'the ideal world the poets and thinkers and the wretched political and social reality of the time had weighed heavily upon Holder lin, so it was felt even more keenly •y"the younger men who had fought for freedom and a united Germany. Disgusted with the turn of 'things numerous scholars and professional men emigrated America. Chief -among them were Karl Follen the later champion of aboli tionism and religious freedom in this country, and Karl Postl (Charles Sealsfield), the great novelist. While literature and philosophy re mained 'the principal objects of national interest even after the wars-of liberation we may notice during the third decade of the century a grad 'dal awakening of the desire for the realities of life. 'Elements of realism as well as a fore •cast 'of later social and democratic tendencies appear already in the work of Jean Paul (Rich ter) (176X-1825), Germany's foremost humor ist. strides made by the natural arid ap
plied sciences, the unprecedented industrial development with its subsequent economic changes, nourish still further the growing sense 'for the concrete and 'the actual which finally was to make itself felt also in literature and philosophy. A group of writers, generally known by the name of ((Young Germany," were the first to champion the new spirit of the time. The cry for a common national feeling and for real life in place of abstract knowledge and learning is heard, especially strong, in the VEs thetische Feldziige>•of L. Wienbarg, a series of lectures containing the program of the new school. While most of the members of this school (L. B6rne, H. Heine, Karl Gutzkow, H. Laube) still show the Romantic influence, 'they protest in the name of liberalism against the reactionary tendencies of degenerate Ro manticism and, following certain contemporary movements France, proclaim a curious mix ture of democratic and socialistic ideas. With the exception of Heine, whose lyric poetry at tained wide popularity, the writers of Young Germany were chiefly journalists and essayists who created a new style of prose, but their attempts in the fields of the drama and the novel did not produce literature of permanent value. The realism coveted by them so eagerly was attained, however, in a remarkable degree in the graphic pictures of American life and land scape contained in the stories of the German American novelist, Charles Sealsfield (1793 1864). Undisturbed by contemporary literary feuds two of the foremost German lyricists best songs during this period: Nicolaus Lenau (1802-50), the forerunner of later pessimism in literature, and Eduard Morike (180445) in whose poetry and stories the best traditions of the folksong and of Ger man classicism are revived. On the other hand, the struggles for national unity and politi cal' freedom which stir the German mind dur ing the subsequent decade and culminate in the Revolution of 1848 are reflected in the patriotic poetry of such men as Georg Herwegh, Ferdi nand Freiligrath, Hoffman von Fallersleben and Emanuel Geibel.
The failure of the revolution, due chiefly to abstract professorial theorizing and to the fruit less wrangling of the liberal and conservative factions, left the nation in a state of depression even worse than that after wars of libera tion. It was during this period that the ma terialistic theories of Ludwig Feuerbach (1804 72) and the pessimist philosophy of Schopen hauer (1788-1860) gained their widespread in fluence which few writers could thereafter en tirely escape. Nevertheless we find during the fifties and sixties, the period sometimes called the °silver ages of modern German literature, a number of highly talented dramatists and novelists whose best work is at least in part of permanent value, and foreshadows in some re spects the literary development of the future. The principal figure among these writers is probably Friedrich Hebbel (1813-63), next to Kleist, the foremost German dramatist of the 19th century. Although his dramas show a decided tendency toward philosophical reflec tion, the result of the author's study of the aesthetic theories of Hegel and Schopenhauer and the lack of the background of a richly de veloped national life, they give evidence of great dramatic power, of a hiasterly technique and of a psychological treatment quite in con trast to the poet's usual predilection for ab stract ideas. Among his plays (Maria Magdalena,' (Agnes and Nibel ungen' may be mentioned as bis most note worthy efforts. Compared to Hebbel, Otto Ludwig (1813-65), a contemporary dramatist, possessed the greater poetic talent and excelled his rival as an outspoken realist, but his most successful plays, 'Der Erbforsteto and 'Die Maklcabier,' though rich in wonderful details, do not attain Hebbel's dramatic force nor hit art of constructing a strong plot. Ludwig's story (Zwischen Himmel und Erde' is one of the finest early specimens of the realistic novel in German and his famous critical (Shakes pearestudien> in many respects paved the way for the later development of the German drama.