The great political disturbances of the 14th century, the decline of the empire, the increase in power of the burghers, and the gradual transition of artistic initiative from the princes, both secular and ecclesiastic, to the wealthy patricians of the many flourishing cities, or to the cities themselves, wrought great changes in the architecture of Germany. The great increase in population of the larger cities de manded larger churches, and hugeness of space rather than artistic perfection was sought for. This led to changes in the ground plan, where the central hall was often preferred. The so called Luxemburg emperors having displayed great activity in building in Bohemia, it was this section of the empire whence the new style spread. The cathedral of Prague (begun in 1334) became typical for many churches, especially in Bavaria and the whole of Austria. The Theyn-Church in Prague, while retaining the long main nave, omitted the cross nave, and this also became typical for many German churches, for instance, the cathedral of Schwer in and the Marienkirche of Rostock. The huge Stephanskirche in Vienna (begun in 1359) is akin to these churches, as is also the Lam bertskirche of Munster. In all these churches the greatest attention was paid to the towers and steeples. While at first individual architects are rarely mentioned, their names came into prominence from the 14th century onward, and often whole families of architects enjoyed great reputation during succeeding generations. The Erwins were natives of Strassburg; and the Parlers of Prague. Ulrich von Ensingen, who died in 1419, built the tower on the west facade of the cathedral of Ulm, and carried the north tower of the cathedral of Strassburg up to the octagonal belfry which was finished in 1439 by Johann Hilitz of Cologne. Other famous names are Matthaus von Ensingen, Wenzel von Krumau, Hans and Matthaus Bob linger, and Hans and Kaspar Kun. The late Gothic, so-called, characterized by great tech nical perfection and a tendency at solving, in the design of the arches and of the vaults, difficult mathematical problems, prevailed dur ing the 15th century, not so much in building new churches, as in restoring or remodeling old ones. During the latter part of this century the effort is noticeable, especially in secular buildings, to have the Gothic forms create new ones, by more closely approaching nature in their ornamentation, and by supplanting the pointed arch with arbitrary creations of the artist's fancy. A well-known instance of such tendencies is the Albrechtsburg in Meissen. Gradually also the Renaissance style, which had become all powerful in Italy, gained in favor in Germany, where it made its first ap pearance early in the 16th century. When the great religious cleavage took place in Germany, and the Protestants built their own new churches, it was natural that they should prefer also a new style. Thus the great palace church in Torgau is built as a great hall in the Renais sance style. This same style was also preferred for princely residences as in Dresden and Heidelburg (the so-called Otto Heinrich part, built 1556-63) and for town-halls, as in Cologne, Bremen, Augsburg and Regensburg. As the best instance of the High Renaissance the castle of Aschaffenburg may be mentioned. Of German buildings erected at this time by Ital ian artists, the Belvidere in Prague is the best known. Toward the end of the 16th century what is called the "Baroque" with its fanciful and heavy lines and decorations began to gain favor also in Germany (e.g., the Friedrichs' part of the castle of Heidelberg), but before it could win general acceptance, the Thirty Years' War broke out, and by the misery which followed in its train put an abrupt end to all art endeavors in Germany. When the war was over, and conditions had become more settled toward the end of the 17th century, the religious division of Germany was reflected in the resumption of her artistic endeavors. In the north her art was under the influence of Protestant, Netherlandish artists, and later the Protestant Huguenots. In the south the Catholic Italians were preferred. This latter preference was most natural, because during the war and soon thereafter a great many Italian artists had been at work in Austria, where they had erected among other churches the magnificent cathedral of Salzburg. The Theatine Church in Munich was built by Zuccale, the cathedral of Passau by Antonio Carlone and the Hofkirche in Dresden by Chiavery. In the north, both na tive and foreign architects were at first pri marily interested in finding new forms adapted to Protestant worship. Gradually, however, also here artistic endeavors came into their own, and among the earliest great architects of this new period Korb in Hanover and Starke in Dresden may be mentioned. The latter built the palace in the "Grosscm Garters?' Greater, however, than either of these men was the architect of the royal castle in Berlin, Andreas Schliiter, a distinct personality in the history of art, with some leanings toward the baroque style. The best-known representatives of this exaggerated style, however, were to be found in Dresden, where M. D. Piippelmann built the most perfect baroque building known as the "Zwinger,° and George Bahr designed the typical Protestant church in the shape of the Frauenkirche. While churches continued. to be built during the 18th century, the greatest artists were called into the service of the reign ing houses who filled their places of residence with castles and palaces in imitation of great French king, Louis XIV, and his succes-, sors. In France at that time the Renaissance style had begun to give way before a formal. classicism, and it was inevitable that German, art had to follow much the same course. The love which Frederick the Great bore for every thing French made Berlin the centre of classi-, cism, although throughout Germany the way for the French imitation had been prepared by the previous generation of fine interior deco rators who had introduced in Germany the light and fanciful French rococo. Some of the rococo artists later espoused the cause of classi cism, as did von Knobelsdorf, the architect of the Royal Opera house in Berlin, who pre viously had decorated the castles of Potsdam and Charlottenburg, and achieved a reputation second only to that of Cuvillies and Effner in Munich, or of Knofel in Dresden. C. G. Lang haus (the architect of the Brandenburg Gate in Berlin), Unger, von Gontard, Gilly, Gentz (the architect of the Mint), K. F. Langhaus,, in Berlin; Neumann the Younger, in the west ern part of Germany; von Fischer, in Munich; Weinbrenner, in Karlsruhe; Laves, in Han over; von Erdmannsdorf, in central Europe; and Nobile and Spranger in Vienna were among the most famous classicist architects. All these men, however, were but forerunners to the really great German classicists, Leo von Klemze in Munich and Friederich Schinkel in Berlin. The latter especially was no mere for malist; for he was deeply impressed by the dis coveries which had then begun to be made in Greece and the fine interpretation of which by the English scholars had opened the eyes of the most thoughtful to the singular beauty and simplicity of Greek architecture. Of his many works it may suffice to mention "The New Guard," the Royal Theatre and the old Mu seum, all in Berlin, and the castles Glienicke, Charlottenhof and Babelsberg. His design for a magnificent castle for the empress of Russia in Orianda in the Crimea was unfortunately not executed. Schinkel's followers, therefore, were properly called "Hellenists," or according to the great textbook of their school, Botticher's der Hellenen,' or (Tectonists.' Stiller, Schadow, Strack, Hitzig, Gropius, Ad ler, Orth, Jakobstal and Eggert are among the best-known architects of this school. The re markable thing about the greatest of these so called classicists was their versatility. They refused to be hound by one style, and Schinkel, for instance, loved the old German art of the Middle Ages as dearly as that of the classicists. He was in fact, jointly with Friedrich Gartner of Munich, the founder of the so-called Ro manticist school whose representatives were offered ample scope by the restoration of old churches which took 'place all over Germany.
Ahlert, Zwirner and Voigtel restored and re built the cathedral in Cologne. Statz, Denziger, Beyer, von Schmidt, Mocker, and especially Otzen, and Hase achieved great suc cesses. By the side of these men who drew their inspiration from the Middle Ages, an other school developed, basing its efforts more largely on the Renaissance. The earliest of these men and the one whose books on the subject were most influential was Semper. Other artists following the same lines were Leins and Engle in Stuttgart; Nicolai in Dres den; Demmler in Schwerin; F6rster, Hausen, von der Niill and Siccardsburg in Vienna; and Neureuther in Munich. None of these then, however, was the slave of the Renais sance, and it is noteworthy that in designing churches they more than once employed Gothic forms. It was in short characteristic of practi cally all great architects of Germany during the 19th century that they looked upon the styles of the past which they most admired, not as copy plates to be imitated but as sources of in spiration. Consequently it is not astonishing that the distinction between the Romanticists and the Renaissance men soon disappeared. The great endeavor of many of these men was to initiate a modern style, i.e., a style adapted to the modern age, expressive of the spirit permeating their own age, and at the same time satisfying the artistic craving of those who had become familiar with the best archi tecture of all ages.
Since few men are experts both in designing the structure and in decorating its details, it frequently happens that two or more men com bined in one architectural firm, and beginning with the middle of the 19th century such firms rather than individual architects appear as the builders of many of the best-known edifices. Among such firms may be mentioned : Ende and Bockmann, the architects of the Red Castle, the Industrial Building in Berlin, the Ethnograph ical Museum and many banks; von der Hude and Hennike, who built the Lessing Theatre in Berlin and several large hotels; Kyllmann and Heyden, who built several museums; Ebe and Benda, who built the °Pringsbeim House* in the Wilhelmstrasse in Berlin in the style of the Italian High Renaissance, and by the use of glass mosaics and terracottas introduced a gaiety of colors which made this house the talk of Berlin, if not of the whole of Germany. Kayser and Grossheim were equally as fond of polychromy in architecture, while Gropius and Schniieden made use of it in telling mod eration, especially in their well-known Arts and Crafts Museum in Berlin. Among the best architects of railway stations, Franz Schwechtern deserves mention, who built the Anhalter Bahnhof in Berlin, while August Sol ler, Eduard Knoblauch and Johannes Otzen are among the best-known church architects. Soller built the Catholic Saint Michaelskirche in adaptation of the brick churches of upper Italy; Knoblauch made use of Moorish elements he cleverly combined with structural iron in his °New Synagogue' ; and Otzen gave pref erence to the Romanesque and the Gothic in his Protestant churches. Beginning with the '80s of the 19th century, Berlin was one of the fastest growing cities of the world, which ac counts for the fact that more architects of im portance found occupation there than anywhere else in Germany, in spite of the great oppor tunities offered by the art-loving King Ludwig II of Bavaria. Next to Berlin, however, Munich continued to be a centre of good archi tecture. Of the long list of good architects there, Lorenz Gedon deserves special mention as the builder of the Schack Gallery, erected soon after the creation of the new German Empire, in the style of the German Renaissance. Of the other cities of Germany, Frankfort holds a unique position with its many fine buildings, the new Museum, the Grand Central station, the Exchange, all built by native talent for only the Opera house was entrusted to an out sider, Richard Luci of Berlin. Of the most important outside commissions entrusted• to Frankfort architects, the Grand Central station in Vienna and the town hall in Hamburg were given to Karl Mylius and Alfred Bluntschli, while the Reichstag building in Berlin was given to Paul Wallot. Wallot endeavored to find a modern national style, but as he him self once said, you cannot find such a style from to-day to to-morrow, and although he has cleverly combined many elements of Ger man Gothic and German Renaissance and has added not a little of his own, the result is not altogether pleasing. The demands of the inte rior, adapting it to the convenience of the mem bers of Parliament and to their needs, were greater than could be met in the given space without forcing compromises in design such as had to tell unfavorably on the exterior. Every body familiar with our own, externally magni ficent Capitol in Washington and its waste of space internally, will appreciate the difficulty of the task set to Wallot, and will appreciate his relative success rather than criticize his shortcomings. All the buildings mentioned thus far may be grouped together as following the historical style of architecture. In the hands of masters this style was able to produce fine structures. Unfortunately, however, the amount of building done in Germany from 1871 on, when the new empire was founded and the huge increase in population began, was so enor mous that in most instances artisans rather than artists had to take charge of designing and erect ing the buildings. In the hands of many of these master builders the historical style de teriorated to a mere fashion, and since it was used irrespectively of the requirements of given cases, Germany is unfortunately filled, espe cially in the smaller towns and cities, with buildings of which a future generation will hardly be proud. It was natural therefore that a reaction should set in. The exact date of its beginning it would be difficult to tell. Early in the 20th century, however, it was an accomplished fact. The aims of the modern German architects have been thus formulated by as keen an observer as Prof. Walther Gensel : °Clearly to express the purpose of the building; to work from the inside out; not to do violence to the material selected by forcing it into forms contrary to its nature; to pay chief attention to proportions; and to consider the requirements of the building either as a part of the street where it is to be erected, or as a spot in the landscape' are the aims of modern German architecture. Working along these lines it is not astonishing that the present generation of German architects should have achieved singular successes. The greatest teacher of these principles is perhaps Karl Schafer in Karlsruhe; the number of men fol lowing them, however, is too great to mention more than a very few. Gabriel Seidl built the new National Museum in Munich; Hugo Licht, the Public Market in Leipzig, and Alfred Mes sel, the great Wertheim Stores in Berlin. A survey of modern German architecture would be incomplete without a reference to the many private residences, in town as well as in the country, which have latterly been built. The earlier delight in display has disappeared. The individual building does no longer endeavor to force the attention of the passer-by. On the contrary, it is satisfied with being a part of an artistic whole, or, in the country, with har monizing with its surroundings. Wherever possible, stately soberness has given way to simple gaiety, in keeping with the turn of mind of the German people early in the 20th cen tury, which took is pleasure in life. No where, however, s this gaiety permitted to obtrude itself where it would be out of place, as for instance in large industrial plants, rail way stations er elevated railroads. These are treated without any attempt at disguising their purpose. Excellent instances of this are found in the railway stations and . elevated railroads in Berlin.
Bibliography.— Reber, of Media val Architecture' ; 'Ecclesiastical Art in Germany During the Middle Ages' ; Liibke, 'Geschichte der Renaissance in Deutschland' ; Licht 'Architektur Deutschlands' ; Knackfuss, H., Zimmermann, Max, Gg., and Gensel, W., 'Allgemeine Kunstgeschichtel (Leipzig_ 1903).