Military service is for one, two and three years, in accordance with circumstances. Those who go through the high schools serve but one year, but have to pay all their own expenses. In addition, as a special stimulus to industry and the arts, those who attend only the public and continuation school grades, if they attain special excellence in their callings, are permitted, if they -are able-bodied, to volunteer for one year's service instead of being called to the colors compulsorily. However, as there are many more able-bodied citizens than are re quired for the standing army, only about 58 per cent serve, a considerable portion of whom are volunteers. The army service itself has great educational value in the sense of forming char acter and habits of discipline. This together with the added incentive which it provides for the schools in general makes the military service a highly valuable factor in German economical development, irrespective of its military im portance.
Upon leaving the primary schools the Ger man youth becomes an apprentice in the trade which he selects. As a rule he is paid a small wage, though in some instances he must work for nothing and in certain trades, such as that of the goldsmith, he must pay a substantial suns, often as high as 4,000 marks, and in other instances must bind himself for a term of years, in order to gain the privilege of learning the trade. He may also have to agree not to seek employment in certain districts within specified periods and not to become an employee of a competing concern. But because a youth leaves school early on account of not being able to enjoy the advantages of high school education does not by any means block his subsequent progress. After he- has- learned his trade, at tended continuation school •and become a journeyman, he may at a later date become a master workman and be entitled to engage in business on his own account, employing other workmen. His further rise then depends upon his ability, and he may eventually be employ ing as technical experts his apparently more fortunate companions who were able to the higher branches of education.
The German system sees to it that - every youth is given an education and is equipped with a thoroughly mastered trade or profession, and thus the individual is made self-reliant and a useful member of society. As the master workman must pass a state examination before being allowed to engage in business on his own account, it is obvious that the public cannot be practised upon by fakirs and incompetents as no such persons have licenses to engage in business. Bismarck laid down the principle of the right to work and he embedded it in the German economic system in such a way that every man who is willing to work need never go hungry. To carry the principle into effect, the state first conducts employment bureaus to the number of over 300, in different parts of the country. Over a million positions annually are
filled in this manner and the man and the job are thus brought together. The labor exchange in Berlin was established in 1888 and finds em ployment annually for over 100,000 persons at an operating cost of $25,000.
The right to work is not interpreted to mean that every man must be provided continu ously with a highly paid position, a thing 'be yond the powers of any state, but it is regarded as meaning that the state's duty is to provide temporary opportunities for work during periods of industrial depression, which will serve to tide the workman over. The work provided by the state in Germany at such times is on public enterprises which may thus be con structed without drawing labor from other fields of industry. In the conduct of such en terprises, it has been found, however, undesir able to offer wages much below the prevailing rate, on account of its demoralizing effect upon industrial conditions in general. The right to work is a principle which has, however, a broader application than the mere phrase im plies. It applies not only, as indicated, to the providing of employment bureaus and of actual work in times of depression, but also among other things to the safeguarding of the inter ests of the worker in his position. The prin ciple does not extend, of course, to the point where the worker may be regarded as having a vested right in his position, but once he has a position, he is guaranteed against sudden ter mination of the work and against impositions on the part of the employer. This is accom plished largely through the industrial courts which are preliminary or informal courts in which minor matters of dispute are considered. Every city of 20,000 or upwards has one or more of such courts, of which there are about 500 in all Germany. In the year 1908 the num ber of cases in the industrial courts was 112,281. Such courts are prompt, economical and effi cacious. Over 90 per cent of the cases brought in them are so adjusted and only 7 per cent are appealed to the formal courts. One and one-half per cent of the cases last over three months and the costs Are only those actually incurred. Such proceedings are more in the nature of arbitrations than of court actions, but they are very effective since business men - and employers do not like to have a record of being continually haled before the court. Employers also resort to the industrial courts, though not by any means to the extent of the actions taken by employees. In 1908, of 14,522 cases brought in the industrial courts of Berlin, 702 cases were brought by employers and 13,820 by employees. The econ omy and ease of taking such action is highly beneficial, since both employer and employee, knowing that unjust and oppressive actions can be so quickly brought to book, are more careful to act justly and equitably.