The navy of Elizabeth, however, was only the British navy in infancy, and the heroes themselves were not far removed from buc caneers. Raleigh, Drake, Hawkins and their contemporaries certainly indulged much in piracy, yet in the minds of these leaders there was also something beyond the mere lust of gold. They sincerely believed that, if the Prot estant states were to live and prosper, it was imperative to destroy the overwhelming dread of the Spanish power. The Reformation had cut England off from the great powers, and when she sought for a share in the world's commerce, it was denied her, with the conse quence that a long and bitter struggle ensued. Then came the Armada, the great naval ex pedition that was to strike the final blow at Protestantism. This formidable fleet was com posed of over 150 vessels, carrying 8,000 sailors, 20,000 soldiers and 3,160 cannons. The news of these hostile preparations aroused all the enthusiasm of England. Her navy, which had been reduced to 36 ships, was rapidly increased until 197 vessels were ready for sea. Lord Howard of Effingham was placed in command; under him were men whose names were al ready famous in English maritime history— Drake, Hawkins, Frobisher and others. On 19 July 1588 the Spanish Armada entered the Channel. After nine days' fighting, and scat tered by the storm, the crippled remnant of that gigantic fleet was struggling to reach home. In 1599 was born Robert Blake, the man from whose career, according to the historian Seeley, the maritime greatness of England dates. Af ter the death of Elizabeth in 1603, James I attempted to reconcile the Catholic and Protest ant states of Europe, but his efforts failed. Next came the reign of Charles I with its rebellion and Civil war, till order was restored by Cromwell, who paid great attention to strengthening the navy during his protector ship. Then both France and Spain endeav ored to gain the assistance of England in their struggle with each other. Cromwell first offered to support Spain on certain conditions, including freedom of commerce in the West Indies and religious liberty for the English living under Spanish rule. These terms were rejected, and Cromwell offered England's al liance to France, which was accepted. Again the navy came into play. Besides exercising its fighting strength, it held the sea routes for the free passage of merchant ships and troop transports. French and English troops overran the Spanish Netherlands; Dunkirk surrendered to the French and was placed in English hands; the Spanish fleets were destroyed by Blake; Admiral Penn seized Jamaica, and Spain's com mercial monopoly was finally broken. But Eng land's weight had been thrown on the side of France, then a growing and ambitious power, destined to become a dangerous rival and Eng land's bitter foe.
The 16th century may be regarded as Eng land's period of preparation and training for her navy; in the 17th century that fighting arm had grown to such importance and strength that the island kingdom was already a world power and had begun colonization on a large scale in the face of overwhelming odds and the most strenuous opposition. In 1731 the original 13 colonies of British North Ainerica were completed. In the East, the English East India Company had established trading factories at Surat, Hoogly and Madras by 1739. Char les II had received Bombay from Portugal in 1661 as a part of the dowry of his wife. In 1690 Fort William was established, and round it grew up the town of Calcutta. Bom bay, Madras and Calcutta thus became the three centres of British trade in India, and it was only her naval power that enabled Eng land to communicate with and hold these quasi possessions. In the War of the Spanish Suc cession (1702) England had to fear a coalition of France and Spain, and that their fleets would combine against British commerce. So the Grand Alliance was re-formed. In this war, lasting 11 years, England took Gibraltar. By the Treaty of Utrecht (1713) England ac quired from France: Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, and Hudson's Bay; from Spain: Gib raltar and Minorca. Four years later we find England, France and Holland forming an alli ance directed against Spain. Philip was deter mined to re-establish the ancient supremacy of Spain and to recover her lost Italian pos sessions. He reconquered Sardinia and sent a fleet to attack Sicily. England intervened and sent a powerful squadron to oppose the Span iards. Although there was no declaration of war an engagement took place, in which the Spanish fleet was annihilated. War was again inevitable. France declared war on Spain a few days after England had done so, 10 Jan. 1719. The French and British destroyed a large number of Spanish war and merchant ships, and in 11 months Spain sued for peace. Philip V of Spain next formed an alliance with Austria against France and England, one of the objects being to recover Gibraltar and Minorca. This led to a counter-alliance be tween England, France, Prussia, Sweden, Den mark and Holland. Russia joined Spain and Austria. Europe was divided into two hostile camps, and a general war seemed inevitable.
For two years peace and war hung in the bal ance, when a Spanish fleet and army suddenly besieged Gibraltar, February 1727. A 12 months' struggle failed to recapture the rock, and peace was again restored.
During the first half of the 18th century it became increasingly evident that the great struggle of the immediate future was to be one between England and the Bourbon powers of France and Spain for colonial and maritime supremacy. The mightiest effort was yet to come. It is not to be wondered at that, in the light of its brilliant achievements, the Brit ish navy had become the darling of the English people; furthermore, it was their one and only bulwark against political extinction. The entire population of the United Kingdom at that time was hardly more than that of New York City to-day, and it was frequently difficult to pro vide the necessary men and boys to man the fleet. The so-called (press gang' was insti tuted to pick up merchant sailors, kidnap suit able recruits and to arrest deserters. Major and minor poets broke out into songs of the sea, such as 'Hearts of Oak,' 'Britannia, the Pride of the Ocean,' 'Tom Bowling,' (Rule, Britannia,' 'The Wooden Walls of Old Eng land,' 'Ye Mariners of England,' etc. For good or ill, England was now committed to a world-wide colonial and naval policy; if her navy failed her, she was lost. The clouds were darkening on the international horizon, and England prepared for the supreme test. In India the English and French East India Com panies were preparing to fight for control of Indian trade and politics; in America a con test was approaching between the colonists of New France (Canada) and those of New Eng land; there was rivalry also in the West Indies. and- both Spain and France were determined to exclude England from the trade in their American possessions. They now concluded a secret family compact by which they bound themselves to destroy the influence of England in the New World. A small, insignificant in cident started the conflagration in 1739. It was the ear of a Captain Jenkins. Since 1716 the English had been permitted to send an annual ship to trade with Spanish America. Under cover of this privilege English traders had en gaged in extensive smuggling operations, and in consequence. the Spanish officials had exer cised their rights of search often with undue severity. The English merchants and the Spanish guarda-costas had for many years been engaged in intermittent 'hostilities, when in 1738 Captain Jenkins appeared in Parliament and told how some seven years previously his ear — which he produced — had been torn off by the Spanish naval officer who searched his ship for contraband. After a long controversy between government and opposition, war was declared on Spain 30 Oct. 1739. Admiral Ver non operated in the Caribbean Sea and Com modore Anson was sent round Cape Horn to attack the Spanish settlements in the Pacific In consequence of Vernon's lack of success and Anson's long absence — over four years — the country soon ceased to take any interest in the war with Spain. British attention was concen trated on defending Maria Theresa against the attacks of Prussia, France, Spain, Sardinia, Saxony and• Bavaria. She had ascended the Austrian throne in 1740, when a host of pre tenders — Germans, Italians and Spaniards— sprang up to dispute her rights. France ported Spain and the other claimants, there fore England sided with Maria Theresa. But the war was not confined to Europe. England fought against the French in Germany, in North America and in India, besides carrying on a continuous naval struggle against both France and Spain over all the sea routes of the world. The war lasted nine years, fol lowed by eight years of uneasy peace in Europe. But the conflict between France and England in America continued without a break. When the Seven Years' War broke out (1756) Eng land helped Frederick the Great with money and pursued her own struggles in Canada and India. Hawke destroyed the French fleet, Wolfe stormed Quebec, Montreal surrendered, and the whole of Canada fell into English hands. By the Treaty of Paris (1763) England re ceived Canada and Cape Breton Island, certain West Indian islands and Florida. By this time, also, England's supremacy in India was assured. Then came the American revolution, and France agreed to help the colonists. England found herself at war again with her old enemy; Spain and Holland joined France, and the Northern powers of Europe formed a league, called the Armed- Neutrality, which was intended to ham per England in her naval war. Now began the terrific struggle for life. Rodney crushed the French fleet in the West Indies and Elliot de fended Gibraltar against all the attacks of the Spaniards. The contest lasted six years, and when peace was made, in 1781, France, Spain and Holland were crippled and on the verge of bankruptcy, and England emerged stronger than ever. But she had lost a large part of North America.