The coalition was shattered by the aston ishing triumphs of Bonaparte in Italy (1796 97), which compelled Sardinia, Naples and finally Austria, to make peace. Holland and Spain, having become allies of the French, the war became solely maritime and colonial. Mu tinies at Spithead and the Nore (April-June 1797), threatened to complete England's ruin; but the gloom of that year was brightened by the victory won by Jervis and Nelson over the Spaniards off Cape Saint Vincent (Feb. 14), triumph over the Dutch fleet at mperdown (Oct. 11). Pitt's overtures for peace to the French government in August September, came to naught. The scene of war then shifted to the Mediterranean where Bona parte's great expedition captured Malta and Egypt, with a view to the eventual conquest of India. His schemes were thwarted by Nelson's brilliant victory near the mouth of the Nile (1 Aug. 1798) • and the pressure of sea power re ceived further illustration by a severe check administered to Bonaparte at Acre by Sir Sidney Smith's squadron. Britain put forth great efforts in India, where Wellesley's capture of Seringapatam early in 1799 led to the overthrow and death of that ambitious ruler, Tippoo Sahib; and after Bonaparte's secret departure from Egypt, a British expedition under Aber crombie and Hutchinson finally compelled the French army which he left behind to surrender (27 Aug. 1801). Malta had fallen to the British fleet in 1800.
Meanwhile, the aggressive conduct of the French government in Europe had enabled Pitt to form a second coalition which swept the French forces from Germany and Italy. An Anglo-Russian force in Holland, however, fared badly and finally had to leave the country (Oct. 1799). At the close of the year Russia left the coalition. In 1800 the allies lost ground rapidly. Bonaparte, virtually mastef of France after the coup d' itat of Brumaire (Nov. 1799), over threw the Austrians at Marengo (14 June 1800) ; Moreau completed their disasters at Hohenlinden in December, and the Court of Vienna came to terms with France early in 1801. Bonaparte with rare skill now prepared to turn the tables against England by effecting an alliance with Russia, and reviving the League of the Armed Neutrals. Again his aims were thwarted by Nelson, whose victory at Copen hagen (2 April 1801), paralyzed the league. The assassination of the Tzar Paul, and the accession of Alexander I, facilitated a corn promise on maritime affairs; and the losses of the French in Egypt and Malta predisposed them to peace with England. Ultimately the belligerents came to terms in the Treaty of Amiens (27 March 1802), whereby England agreed to restore all her colonial conquests to France, Spain and Holland (including the Cape of Good Hope to the last-named), except Trini dad and Ceylon, which the Spaniards and Dutch, respectively, ceded to her. Malta was to be restored to the Knights of Saint John (on conditions which proved to be unworkable), while Egypt reverted to Turkey.
In the Anglo-French wars of the 18th cen tury the importance of the commercial and colonial motives is increasingly apparent. The first two struggles originated in dynastic affairs relating to the then dominant principle of the balance of power; but the increasing solidity of the European states and the growth of com merce under conditions which were almost pro hibitive to foreigners, turned the gaze of states men more and more to the new lands beyond the seas. The result may be estimated by read
ing over the causes and results of the wars here briefly set forth. Europe, after settling down on the foundations laid in 1713 and 1748, occu pied less attention from statesmen at London and Paris. The French Revolution brought matters back sharply to the old field of debate between the two powers — the Netherlands; but when the weakness of the coalition and the genius of Bonaparte made France paramount on the Continent, the struggle quickly became one for supremacy in the Levant, and the East and West Indies. The vigor with which he played the roles of Caesar and Alexander the Great would have enabled him to wrest from England her world empire had he not been confronted by Nelson. Even so, the struggle between the secular rivals ended in 1802 on terms on the whole favorable to France; and it was soon clear that the first consul viewed the Peace of Amiens as an opportunity of strengthning the position of France in Euorpe, as well as her fleet and her colonies, in order to resume the struggle for empire under conditions far more favorable than Louis XIV had ever known.
Bibliography.— For a short account of the wars of the 18th century, consult the histories of England by Dr. J. F. Bright, J. R. Green and Dr. S. R Gardiner; also (The Balance of Power —1715-89,' by A. Hassall. The fullest accounts are to be found in the