the year 1715 (see pre ceding article) till 1821 the Greeks were subject to the domination of the Turks. In 1770, and again in 1790, they made attempts at insurrec tion, which, however, were speedily frustrated. In the early years of the 19th century a secret society was formed for the purpose of effecting their liberation from the galling yoke, and in 1821 they found an opportunity of breaking out into another insurrection, which in the end proved successful. In that year Ali, the pasha of Janina, revolted against the Sultan Mahmoud II and secured the aid of the Greeks by prom ising them their independence. The rising of the Greeks took place on 6 March, under Alex ander Ypsilanti, and on 1 Jan. 1822 they pub lished a declaration of independence. In the same year Ali was assassinated by the Turks, but the Greeks nevertheless continued the strug gle that they had begun and in which they were encouraged by the sympathy of nearly all the nations of Europe. Among the most distin guished of their leaders were Marcos Bozzaris, Capo d'Istria, Constantine Kanaris, Koloco troni, Miaulis, Mavrocordato, Mavromichaelis, etc. In 1823 they were joined by Lord Byron, who, during the last year of his life, did all in his power to further their cause by his wealth, as well as by his active efforts on their behalf. Unfortunately he died in April of the following year. In 1825, the Turks having called to their aid Mehemet-Ali, the pasha of Egypt, the lat ter sent his son, Ibrahim Pasha, whose talents secured them the success that they had hitherto been unable to attain. Tripolitza, the capital of the Morea, was taken, as was also Misso longhi, in spite of the valor of the Suliote moun taineers. It was about this time that the Greek patriots received the aid of the English ad miral, Lord Cochrane, who organized their fleet, and of French officers who instructed their army in the system of European tactics. In spite of this, however, the Turks continued to triumph everywhere and resisted all the pres sure that was put upon them by other Euro pean powers to make concessions. A treaty was then concluded at London (6 July 1827) between Britain, France and Russia for the pacification of Greece, and when the media tion of these three powers was declined by the Sultan, their united fleets, under Admiral Cod rington, attacked and annihilated the Turkish fleet off Navarino, 20 Oct. 1827. In the begin ning of the following year (1828) Count Capo d'Istria became president of the state, and later in the same year Ibrahim Pasha was forced to evacuate Greece. At last, on 3 Feb. 1830, a protocol of the allied powers declared the in dependence of Greece, which was recognized by the Porte on 25 April of that year. The new member of the states of Europe received from the allies a monarchical form of government and offered the crown to Leopold, Prince of Saxe-Coburg, and when he refused it, to Otho, a young prince of Bavaria. The latter accepted the offer and was proclaimed king of the Hellenes at Nauplia, on 30 Aug. 1832. The power of the king was at first almost absolute and his arbitrary measures, and more especially the which he gave to Germans in the government, soon made him unpopular. At the same time the finances of the kingdom were in a very embarrassed condition and a general uneasiness prevailed. In 1843 a rebel lion took place, after which a constitution was drawn up. But Otho was after that no more popular than before, and after the outbreak of another rebellion in February 1862, he saw him self compelled to abdicate the throne (24 Octo ber). A provisional government was then set up at Athens and the National Assembly after declaring that the throne had been forfeited by Otho, offered it in succession to Prince Al fred, of England, and Prince William George, of Denmark The latter accepted it and 30 March 1863 was proclaimed as King George I. At the end of that year a constituent assem bly was elected for the purpose of framing a new constitution, and the result of its labors was the constitution which is still in force. In 1864 an addition was made to the small kingdom by the annexation of the Ionian Islands, which had hitherto formed an independent republic under the protection of Britain. From the first Greece had been watching for an opportunity of ex tending its frontier northward, so as to in clude the large Greek population in Thessaly and Epirus. In 1878 the Congress of Berlin
recommended that the northern boundary of the kingdom be readjusted. Turkey refused to make any concessions and negotiations were protracted until in 1881 the Powers accepted the terms offered by Turkey, by which Greece received all Thessaly south of the northern watershed of the Salambria, together with Larissa and Trikkala and in Epirus the Arta River was made the boundary, Arta being left to Greece. The Greeks accepted this settle ment as the best to be obtained at the time, but began to agitate for the union of Crete, which they regarded as Greek territory. In 1896 a conflict broke out in Crete between the Chris tians and Mohammedans and Greece made an attempt to annex the island. The Powers in terfered, compelling Greece to withdraw and decreeing the autonomy of the island. A war element in Greece now embroiled Greece in a war with Turkey, for which the former was wholly unprepared, and hostilities began in April 1897. Within 31 days the Turks had put the whole Greek army to flight and threatened invasion nvasion of central Greece. This move was by Russia, who peremptorily demanded an armistice, which was concluded on 18 May. A treaty of peace was concluded at Constanti nople on 4 December, by the terms of which Greece was required to pay an indemnity of $18,000,000 to Turkey, the payment to be super• vised by a commission of the mediating Powers, which also engaged to rectify the frontier. In 1898 Turkey was compelled by the Powers to withdraw her forces from Crete and Prince George of Greece was appointed governor of the island. The disputes between the Christians and Mohammedans rendered his administration the reverse of tranquil and he resigned in 1906, when the Powers left the power of appointing his successor to King George of Greece. M. Zaimor was appointed High Commissioner and Greek officers took command of the Cretan army. When the Young Turks overthrew Ab dul Hamid in 1908 the Cretan Assembly de clared the union of the island with Greece, but the Powers refused to sanction any violation of the agreement of 1898. When the Balkan War broke out Cretan delegates were admitted to the Greek Parliament and in 1913 Crete was ceded to Greece by the Treaty of London. Greece had meanwhile become embroiled with her neighbors to the north in connection with Macedonia, and there was bitter feeling between Greece and Rumania and Bulgaria until 1912. Turkey had now become greatly weakened thtough civil strife and Greece joined in the coalition against her with Bulgaria, Serbia and Montenegro. The Greek army captured Salo niki and overran southern Macedonia, and her navy captured several Turkish islands in the /Egean, while hindering greatly the movement of Turkish troops from Asia Minor. King George was assassinated 18 March 1913 while on a tour of inspection in Saloniki and was succeeded by Crown Prince Constantine. The division of the spoils led to a war between the allies (see BALKAN WAR) and several atrocities were laid to the Greeks. By the Bucharest Conference Greece received all of Thessaly and the best parts of Macedonia and Thrace, to gether with part of Epirus. Crete also was given her and the islands of the lEgean not occupied by Italy. Thus Greece in great part realized her dream of a Greater Greece. At the outbreak of the great conflict in Europe in 1914 Greece proclaimed a policy of strict neutrality. For subsequent events involving the position of Greece in regard to the world con flict and leading to the abdication of King Constantine see WAFt, EUROPEAN.
Bibliography.— Garnett, L. M. J., 'Greece of the Hellenes) (London 1914) ; Hichens, R., The Near East: Dalmatia. Greece, and Con stantinople' (New York 1913) ; Manatt, T. I., (lEgean Days' (London 1913) ; Martin, P. F., of the Twentieth Century' (London 1913) ; Moses, G. H., 'Greece of To-Day' (Nat. Geographic Meg., Washington 1915) ; Rhizos Neroulos, Jacovaky, CCours de littera ture grecque moderne) (Geneve 1828) ; Rhizos RhanIcabes, A., 'Greece: her Progress,' etc. (New York' 1867), and litteraire de la grece moderne' (Paris 1877) ; Toynbee, A. J., Policy since 1882' (London 1914).