Lack of space forbids here any account of the ecclesiastical Gothic architecture of Belgium and the Netherlands or of Spain, for which the inquirer is referred to the general histories of architecture and to works and articles on these countries.
Secular The style thus developed in ecclesiastical edifices was applied also in the design of such secular buildings as were needed, such as town halls, "palaces of justice," hospitals, guild halls and the like. The city republics of Italy were the first to create distinctive types of secular Gothic archi tecture, because of their strong civic indepen dence. The Bargello and Palazzo Vecchio of Florence and the Palazzo Pubblico of Siena date from the latter part of the 13th century; the Doge's Palace at Venice from the 14th and 15th. In France, England, Germany and Bel gium civic independence was slower in asserting itself architecturally; the French Gothic town halls (as at Compiegne) and palaces of justice (as at Rouen) belong mostly to the 15th and early 16th century; but there are city gates and civic towers of earlier date in many French towns. It was in the Netherlands, especially in what is now Belgium and French Flanders, that civic architecture was most brilliant, espe cially in the latter part of the 15th and early 16th century, as exemplified in the town halls of Arras, Audenarde, Bruges, Brussels, Ghent and Louvain, and in some of the guild houses of various cities.
Domestic architecture was at first of minor importance. The homes of the great feudal lords were fortified castles (see MILITARY ARCHITECTURE) ; those of the commoners mostly small and insignificant houses on crowded streets. The 14th century witnessed a great progressive change; palaces gradually replaced the castles, and in the cities especially they were often of great elegance (as in the house of Jacques Coeur at Bourges and the Hotel Cluny at Paris, both of the 15th century) in France, and in many examples in Italy, espe cially in Venice (Foscari Palace, Ca'd'Oro, etc.). In these later Gothic palaces the re sources of the florid late Gothic style were freely employed, with many modifications (e.g., dormer windows in France, stepped gables in Germany and the Netherlands) to adapt them to their new functions. In England the finest secular works of the late Gothic period were the colleges and halls of the great universities, and the manor houses or country palaces of lords and gentry under the Tudor monarchs.
The Modern During the two mid dle quarters of the 19th century there was a widespread effort in Western Europe to revive the use of Gothic forms in modern architecture; a movement especially strong in England, which produced not only many interesting churches but also a large number of town halls, court houses, etc., in free versions and adaptations of
the historic Gothic style (Town Hall and Assize Courts at Manchester, the fine Houses of Parlia ment in London, the far less successful Law Courts in the same city, etc.). The movement spread, though feebly, to the United States, ap pearing chiefly in churches, of which a few— Trinity and Grace churches and the Roman Catholic cathedral at New York among others— are creditable and interesting works. With the eclecticism of the 20th century in America the details of the style have been applied to com mercial buildings, as in the Woolworth build ing at New York, and the English collegiate Gothic very successfully employed in college and university buildings at New York, Prince ton (N. J.), Chicago, Saint Louis, Bryn Mawr and other places. See ARCHITECTURE, MODERN.
From the vast literature of Gothic architecture only a few titles can be given. For the general discussion : Cram, R. A., The Substance of Gothic' (Boston 1917) ; Gonse, L., 'L'Art gothique' (Paris, n. d.) ; Jackson, T. G., 'Gothic Architecture' (Cambridge 1915) ; Moore, C. H., 'Develop ment and Character of Gothic Architecture> (New York 1899) ; Viollet-le-Duc, E., 'Die tionnaire raisonne,) etc. (Paris 1876). For French Gothic: Enlart, C., 'Manuel d'arch&olo gie francaise) (Paris 1902), also Gonse, Moore and Viollet-le-Duc as above. For England: Bond, F., 'Cathedrals of England and Wales' (London 1912), and 'Introduction to English Church Architecture' (ib., 1913) ; Moore, C. H., 'Mediwval Church Architecture of England' (New York 1912) ; Parker, 'Introduction to Gothic Architecture' (London 1866); Rick man, T., 'An Attempt to Discriminate the Styles, etc.' (London 1848); Scott, G., dimval Architecture' (ib., 1886); Van Rens selaer, M. G., 'English Cathedrals' (New York 1893). For Germany: Foerster, 'Denkmale deutscher Baukunst' (Leipzig 1855-69); Hasak, romanische and die gothische Baukunst' (Stuttgart 1902); Lake, W., 'Ecclesiastical Architecture in Germany,' etc. (London). For Italy: Cummings, C. A., 'A History of Archi tecture in Italy' (Boston 1901) ; Street, G. E., Brick and Marble Architecture of Italy' (Lon don 1872). For Spain: Gade, J. A., 'Cathedrals of Spain' (New York 1911); Lamperez y Romea, V., (Historia de la arquitectura cris tiana Espanola' (Madrid 1909); Street, G. E., revised by King, A. G., 'Gothic Architecture in Spain' (New York 1914). For Belgium and Holland: Klock, L., der Niederlande' (Leipzig 1894); Narjoux, F., 'Notes and Sketches of an Architect' (Boston 1877); Sc.hayes, A. G. B.. de l'ar chitecture en Belgique' (Brussels 1850).