HUMANISM. (1) That phase of the Re naissance which consisted in a renewed study of the so-called humanities— the Latin and Greek classics. Like the entire movement of the Renaissance, Humanism had its source in Italy, which had at all times maintained a con tinuous (through often a slender) tradition of its ancient greatness. Furthermore, Italy was the nearest of the civilized western countries to the Empire of the East, and so it was to Italy that the Byzantine scholars fled when their country fell under Turkish dominion. Much before this, however, the Italian scholars had begun to set a high price on the remains of ancient learning. Petrarch (1304-74), and Boccaccio (1313-75) (qq.v.) were both more highly esteemed by their contemporaries for theirLatin writings than for their compositions in the vernacular, and both spent much effort in the discovery and preservation of classical works. Boccaccio indeed was familiar with Greek as well as with Latin.
The definitive introduction of Greek into Italy, however, took place in 1391, when Michael Chrysoloras, being on his way through Flor ence on a mission from the emperor of Byzan tium, was induced to settle there and teach Greek. After him came Johannes Bessarion, Theodorus Gaza, Johannes Argyropoulus and Demetrius Chalcondylas, who had left the By zantine Empire on account of the menace of the Turks or on account of the fall of Constan tinople in 1453. These men had as pupils Piero and Lorenzo de Medici, Pitian, Reuchlin, Linacre, Grocyn, Latimer and many other scholars from both sides of the Alps. The re covery of manuscripts became the passion of monarchs and popes. Nicolas V, Leo X, Cosimo and Lorenzo de Medici, Alphonso the Magnanimous of Naples, Guarino Veronese and Poggio Bracciolini stand out among the many ardent bibliophiles of this age. Under the de Medicis the revival of learning came to be associated with a revival of Platonism and a new academy was organized, the most distin guished head of whick Marsilio Ficino (1433 99), tried to unite Platonism and Christianity. Aristotle too was read in the original, and many disputes arose between the advocates of the Catholic or Arabic traditions and those who in terpreted the works of Aristotle in their own fashion.
Humanism received a great impetus from the invention of printing. Aldus Manutius (q.v.; 1450-1515), the greatest of Italian print ers, produced editions of 28 Greek and Latin classics. Aldus associated himself with a large number of scholars, who co-operated with him in his work. For him publishing was not merely a business, but a propaganda for the dispersion of knowledge.
The revival of learning ended in Italy with the conquest of the Italian cities by the ruffianly soldiers of Charles V in 1527-30, after the strength of the country had been sapped by the dissipation and profligacy which followed the upsetting of the old religious sanctions by the influence of ancient philosophy. This failed to impose its own standards of righteousness on a people given over to the splendid luxury which accompanied the rebirth of art. Human
ism might well have perished had it not been that it had already taken root in a more north ern soil. Among the pioneers of humanism be yond the Alps were Agricola (1443-85), Johann Reuehlin (1455-1532), and Melanchthon (1497. 1560). Between these men and their obscuran tist reactionary opponents there was waged a continual strife. Italian humanism turned its energies to literature and art ; German humanism to theology, education and social betterment, thus forming the prelude to the Reformation.
Like the humanism of all northern countries, that of France• had Italian origin, and may be said to have received its first great impulse from the invasion of Naples by Charles VIII in 1494. It owed much, however, to the influence of perhaps the greatest of all the scholars of the Re naissance, the Dutchman Desiderius Erasmus (1467-1536). Erasmus also played an import ant part in British humanism. Humanism in England was foreshadowed by Chaucer, who was at once a literary debtor and a disciple of Petrarch and Boccaccio. In the reign of Henry V, Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester, was a tron of learning in the Italian sense, and gath ered around him a coterie of English and Italian scholars. However, British humanism first became definitely established by Thomas Linacre (1460-1524), William Grocyn (1446 1519), and William Latimer. These three friends made secure the hold which humanism had already obtained on Oxford, so that Brit ish humanism became able to meet that of Italy on terms. Through Colet (1467-1515), the pupil of Linacre and Grocyn, the humanis tic movement led to the foundation of the great schools of England. Sir Thomas More (1478 1535), another pupil of Linacre and Grocyn, did much to break down the opposition to Greek at Oxford. More was also an ardent Platonist, as is shown by his famous book, the 'Utopia,' which was patterned after the 'Republic' of Plato. Greek was established at Cambridge through the efforts of Erasmus and John Fisher (1469-1535), bishop of Rochester. The hu manism established in England by these men spread throughout society, and paved the way for the great Elizahethian period of literature and culture. See RENAISSANCE for further de tails and for bibliography.
(2) The word ((humanism* is often used for that theory of education which claims that a study of the classics is the best means for a well-rounded and broad culture. It often takes the form of a protest against the scrappiness of a training based on a too exclusive devotion to natural science.
(3) "Humanism* is sometimes used to des ignate that type of philosophical view which makes man the measure of all things. Its chief contemporary exponent is F. C. S. Schiller of Oxford.
Bibliography.— Consult Jebb, R. C., 'Hu manism in Education' (New York 1899) Schiller, F. C. S., 'Humanism> (New York •, Mackenzie, J. S., 'Lectures on Humanism' (New York 1907).