HUME, David, Scottish historian and meta physician; b. Edinburgh, 26 April 1711; d. there, 26 Aug. 1776. He appears to have entered the University of Edinburgh at 12 and to have left at 14 or 15 without taking a degree. He began the study of law, but abandoned it first for commerce and then in order to devote himself to the °pursuits of philosophy and learning* These he carried on in France, largely at the Jesuit school of La Fliche. His first work, the 'Treatise of Human Nature,' was published partly in 1739 and partly in 1740; the books en titled 'Of the Understanding> and 'Of the Passions' appearing in the former, and that en titled 'Of Morals> in 'the latter year.
The 'Treatise of Human Nature> is the final and most complete exposition of the funda mental principles of the old school of empirical philosophy,— the school to which belonged Bacon, Locke and Berkeley. According to l Hume, the contents of the mind are embraced in the term 'perceptions' Perceptions con sist of sensuous impressions and ideas. Ideas are merely faded-out sensuous impressions. Knowledge is the cognition of the relation be tween perceptions. There is no necessary con nection between cause and effect. The idea of cause depends on the habit of the mind which expects the event that usually follows another. Mind— and it is precisely this point that Hume transcends Berkeley— is but an isolated series or succession of impressions and ideas. As knowledge is dependent on experience derived through the senses, and as the senses frequently deceive, one can have no absolute knowledge of things, but only of one's impression of them. Or rather, there are no things apart from perience, but merely chains of experiences whidt constitute the things. Hence, to give the con clusion later arrived at in the famous 'Essay on Miracles,' a miracle even if genuine is in capable of proof.
The 'Treatise of Human Nature' is clear, forcible and untechnical. Its most striking characteristics are its spontaneity and indivi duality. Hume owed little to academic train ing, and wrote his earlier works at a distance from centres of learning, without access to large libraries. The literary beauties of the 'Treatise,' however, are marred by its structural defects. It is a series of brilliant fragments rather than a well-rounded whole, and is concerned more with criticism of metaphysical opinions from the point of view of Hume's theory of knowl edge than with the construction of a complete system of philosophy, yet this lack of system making can scarcely be held up against a man whose chief contribution to philosophy was of the nature of a destructive criticism of the old notions of substance. The 'Treatise failed to
excite the interest and antagonism which Hutne confidently expected. He therefore turned hie activity in the direction of political investiga tion.
In 1741 appeared the first volume of 'Essays, Moral and Political,' the second volume coming out in the following year These, with some additions and omissions, were republished in. 1748 under the expanded title, Moral, Political and Literary,' which has been retained in the many subsequent editions. In 1744 Hume failed to receive an appointment to the chair of ethics and pneumatic philosophy at Edin burgh on account of the reputation for unor thodoxy, which the 'Treatise' has, engendered. Hume's essays are models of their kiiid, full of sparkle, interest and animation. Hutne accomJ panied General Sinclair in 1746 and 1747 in his expedition against France and in a military em bassy to Vienna and Turin. He now published a recasting of his 'Treatise upon Human Natured under the title 'An Enquiry Concern ing the Human Understanding (1747). In 1752 he published his 'Political Discourses' which were well received, having theprevioui year published his Concerning Principles of Morals.' The posthumous (Dia to es on Religion) belong to the same period. That year he obtained the appointment of li brarian of the Advocates' Library at Edin burgh, and began to write his (History of land,' of which the first volume appeared in 1754. It was, like most of the succeeding volumes, severely attacked both for its religious and political tendencies; but, in spite of adverse criticism, after its completion in 1762 was rec ognized as a standard work. Its merits are chiefly clearness and force of narrative and philosophical breadth of view in thejudgment of men and event. In 1757 came 'Four Dis sertations: the Natural History of Religion; of the Passions; of of the Standard of Taste.' In 1763 he accepted an invitation from the Earl of Hertford, then proceeding as Am bassador to Paris, to accompany him, and was enthusiastically received by Parisian circles in his character of philosopher and historian. After the departure of Lord Hertford, he remained as chargé-d'affaires, and returned to England in 1766, bringing with him Rousseau, for whom he procured a pension and a retreat in Derby shire. But the morbid sensitivity of Rousseau brought about a disagreement which put an end to the friendship. In 1767 Hume was appointed Under-Secretary of State, a post which he held till 1769.