Communications.— Keeping pace with in ventions, Iceland has emerged from the period of bridle-paths and infrequent mails. Bridges and roads now exist, and the introduction of motors compels further progress. Cable com munication with Europe is supplemented by a network of telegraph and telephone lines; this system, 862 miles in length, has about 90 sta tions in operation. The coast settlements are served by regular steamship lines.
Government.— The Minister of Iceland controls such affairs as pertain to Denmark. by whose king he is appointed. His tenure of office depends on the support of the Althing. (See History). Iceland votes its own budget, levies its own taxes, and imposes duties on cof fee, sugar and tobacco. Its expenditures are kept within its receipts, and there is no public debt. • A reserve fund for emergencies exceeds one million kroner.
Commerce.— Until 1854 trade was a Dan ish monopoly. At present 40 per cent is Danish, 25 English, and 10 Norwegian. The larger part of the cargoes are carried in Eng lish bottoms. The value of the imports (1913) reached 16,717,000 kroner: they consisted prin cipally of cereals, 12 per cent; clothes, etc., 14 per cent; coal, 15 per cent; and wood materials, 7 per cent. The exports (1913) aggregated 19,128,000 kroner. Of this fish amounted to 64 per cent, mutton to 10, oil and hides, 5 each, horses and eider-down about 1 per cent each Population.— The inhabitants of Iceland are Scandinavian by race and Lutheran by reli gion. Once said to number 100,000, they were reduced by famine and epidemics to 47,240 in 1801. The population increased steadily to 72, 445 in 1880, but fell off the following decade to 70,927 through an epidemic of measles and by emigration to America. The census of 1911 registered 85,133, and doubtless the number now exceeds 90,000, as the 2,333 births of 1914 exceeded the deaths by 904. The Icelanders are educated, intelligent and temperate. Thrift is shown by the saving-banks where the deposits approximate $1,500,000. More than one-half the population are agriculturists, and one sixth are engaged in deepsea fisheries.
Education.— In the remote and rural dis tricts the education of children begins at home, aided by traveling teachers and super vised by the clergy. Wherever there is a vil lage or town a regular school system is main tained. Reikjavik is the seat of higher educa tion, headed by a theological seminary and a university. Technical schools are maintained for medicine, navigation, agriculture (there are four on the island), Latin and advanced train ing for women. There are about 20 Icelandic newspapers and journals, which are widely dis tributed and diligently read.
History.— The definite history of Iceland begins with its settlement in the 9th century by Norwegians, whose emigration was forced by the tyrannical oppression of King Harald Fairhair. The colonists came in clans, their home chieftains ruling selected districts in the new land. These chiefs soon established a rep
resentative government, organizing the Althing in which all Iceland participated. For two cen turies the laws there made were promulgated orally and handed down by memorizing. The introduction of Christianity, in the year 1000, was followed by the development of a rich and remarkable literature. Feudal quarrels and religious dissensions, fostered by the king of Norway, led to civil war. Through emissaries, by means of assassination and bribery, the Althing was influenced to ratify (1264) a Treaty of Union with Norway, safeguarding Icelandic liberties by provisos retaining powers of taxa tion and of law-malting. In 1380, through changes in the Scandinavian dynasty, Iceland passed under control of Denmark.
The epidemic of Black Death (1402-04) threatened extinction, while later famines, pi ratical raids, smallpox (1707) and volcanic eruptions (especially in 1783) brought untold misery on the people. After an existence of over eight centuries the Althing was abolished (1800), and home government seemed to have perished. But patriotism was not dead, and after years of struggle the Althing was restored in 1843. Denmark attempting (1849) to restrict Icelandic liberty, a constitutional struggle fol lowed, which terminated (1874) by the grant ing of a constitution. This reformation was ac complished under the leadership of Jon Sigurds son, on whose monument is engraved, °Ice land's beloved son, her honour, sword and shield.° While the Althing was largely elec tive, the Upper House was formed by 12 mem bers, of whom six were nominated by the king of Denmark, who also appointed the governor. The Crown however exercised very freely its power of veto on Icelandic measures, which led to further struggles. Finally Denmark granted a liberal constitution (1903), under which the Minister of Iceland resides in the country, and depends for his tenure of office on the support of a majority of the Althing. This body now consists of a Lower House, 26 elective mem bers, and the Upper House, with eight of its members elective and six nominated. Icelandic affairs are now largely independent of Danish control_ The autonomy of the island is also evident from the royal assent given to the Icelandic national flag, a white cross, with a stripe of red, in a blue field. The measure giving women the right of suffrage receiving royal approval 19 July 1915. On 25 Jan. 1915 the Althing enacted a law forbidding sales of liquors, under which all remaining stock of liquor was exported. Progress is the order of the day, and complete independence is now urged.
Bibliography.—Thoroddsen, der Island Geographic' (2 vols., Leipzig 1898) ; and Kukur' (Copenhagen 1902) ; Annan dale, N., The Faroes and Iceland' (London 1895) ; Stefansson, J.. (Denmark and Sweden, with Iceland and Finland' (New York 1916) ; Russell, W. S. C., 'Iceland: Horseback Tours in Saga Land' (Boston 1914).