In October 1797 peace was agreed on with Austria at Campoformio, in Friuli. By the terms of peace Austria was to renounce pos session of Lombardy, but received instead the territory of the republic of Venice, which from this time ceased to exist. The cession of Venice to Austria gave the lie to the fine promises of liberty and independence that had been made by the French inyaders, which was probably the reason for the harassing attacks and the plundering expeditions that occurred in the Cisalpine and Ligurian republics, which were now considered almost as vassals, which fact caused great dissatisfaction among the Italian populace. However, the two years (1796-97) showed a great awakening in the life of the peninsula.
In 1798 the French, on the pretext that the house of the French Ambassador had been vio lated, took possession of Rome, declared the government to have fallen into decadence and established a republic. Then, as the king of Naples had dared to declare war on them, they entered Naples and proclaimed a republic there, which they called Parthenopea, from the ancient name of the city. On hearing the news that Austria, in alliance with Russia and Eng land, meditated a fresh descent into Italy, the French took possession also of Piedmont and Tuscany.
But the Austro-Russian army entered Italy in the spring of 1799, and repeatedly defeated the French, so that the latter were forced to retreat into Liguria. Naturally the republican governments, which had been established by them, not having sufficient standing in the coun try, were overthrown, and many of the citizens who had compromised themselves by the favor with which they accepted the new ideas were obliged to emigrate. The republicans of Naples capitulated on the promise of amnesty; but King Ferdinand and Queen Maria Carolina violating their promises took fierce vengeance on the heads of the republican iovernment. Among them were Dr. Domenico Cirillo, Judge Mario Pagano, Francesco Conforti, Ad miral Francesco Caracciolo, etc.
Napoleon Bonaparte assumed the rule in France, with title of First Consul. He in tended to reconquer Italy, where the French now possessed only Genoa, and even here they found themselves besieged. Massena, com mander of the French army, shut up in Genoa, held out heroically until 4 June 1800. In the meantime Napoleon at the head of another army entering Italy by way of the Saint Bernard threatened the Austrians from the rear and forced them to retreat toward Lom bardy. At Marengo, near Alexandria, on 14
June 1800, a great and decisive battle was fought. The Austrians were forced to abandon all their conquests and again confirm the Treaty of Campoformio. Napoleon re-es tablished the Cisalpine and Ligurian republics, and annexed Piedmont to France. The Neapolitan and Austrian troops evacuated Rome, which was presented to the new Pope Pius VII. Shortly after this Parma and Pia cenza were ceded to France, and the Bourbons, who owned that duchy, were given Tuscany, which was made into the kingdom of Etruria.
At the close of 1801 Napoleon convoked a meeting at Lyons of 452 leading men of the Cisalpine Republic for the purpose of forming the new constitution, which was to be similar to that which then obtained in France. The re public was to be called Italian, and Napoleon Bonaparte was elected President. He nomi nated Francesco Melzi as Vice-President. From this time the evils consequent on the military occupation of the preceding years began to diminish and this republic was able to enjoy true prosperity. The name of Italian Republic was pleasing to the people, and as the President was at a distance their independence seemed all the greater. Melzi knew how to attract general sympathy and governed wisely. But when Napoleon became emperor of the French he changed the republic of Italy into the king dom of Italy, and was crowned at Milan 26 May 1805. He named as vice-regent Eugene Beauharnais, a youth of good and gentle dis position, who endeavored to show his gratitude toward the emperor by a blind obedience. As a result of the war of 1805, Austria had to re nounce Venice, which became part of the king dom of Italy, to the great joy of the Italian people, who flattered themselves that this was the first step toward the unification of the en tire peninsula. Instead of that, Napoleon drove the Bourbons out of Naples, and made of it a separate kingdom, placing his brother Joseph Bonaparte on the throne. Then, as he had al ready annexed Liguria to the French crown, he also annexed Tuscany and Latium, leaving to the kingdom of Italy only the Marches. With this invasion ceased the temporal power of the popes (1809).