Early Christian and Byzantine Ivories.— The first ivory carvings of the Christians were, of course, "transitional," showing many of the former pagan features as well as copying the style, as they are contemporaneous till we come to the developed Byzantine style. Early Christian diptychs gave the names of those baptized, some gave the names of bishops and benefactors, martyrs, saints, others recorded the names of the dead. Several cylindrical pyxes (caskets), made from a section of ele phant tusk, exist that are beautifully carved; one in the Berlin Museum has reliefs of the Saviour enthroned, Saint Peter and Saint Paul on curule chairs, other apostles standing around, etc. Four small ivory plaques of great interest are in the British Museum and contain carv ings that depict events in the history of Christ (Crucifixion, etc.) ; they date somewhere be: tween the 5th and 8th century. The leaf from the diptych of Rambona in the Vatican is a 9th century production and shows a bust of the Saviour with hand in act of benediction, an allegorical sun and moon holds a torch each, and, strangely, below is a wolf suckling two children with the inscription "Romulus and Remus nourished by a wolf,* in Latin. These plaques are frequently used as book-covers (a 9th century example is in the Bodleian Library, Oxford; a 14th century one in the British Museum is perhaps the most beautiful). The "Nativity" was one of the favorite subjects with ivory carvers ; one, a plaque of Rhenish exe cution, in the Cologne Museum dates from the 11th century. Of Byzantine ivories there are few after the 10th century, then come several of Russian origin. We cannot fail to note that the religious stiffness and conventionalism of Byzantine works, are little present in the ivory reliefs; there is a freedom of action and resem blance to nature quite remarkable and different from art expressed in other mediums. In the British Museum is, perhaps, the most noted of these carvings; it represents an archangel hold ing an orb Ira one hand and a long rod in the other. This is one of the largest known (16y inches by and dates about the 4th century; it doubtless is part of a writing tablet, as the Greek inscription reads "Accept this gift, and having learned the cause," proving that another plaque is missing, which contained the rest of the sentence. The noted Brescia casket in the Quiriniana Library, Brescia, is a 5th or 6th cen tury worki it has an overelaborated top and sides, but in classic style. Busts range round the upper part, two scenes of Jonah and the whale, the Saviour, Magdalen, Good Shepherd and sheep, story of Susannah, all in be wildering closeness. The Episcopal chair of Maximianus (546) at Ravenna from As syrian workers, apparently) is of ivory with beautifully carved panels. A superb archangel Saint Michael in the British Museum is attributed .to Antioch artists. In Byzantine style is the Carlovingian 9th century ivory bookcover in the Victoria and Albert Museum (London). The centre panel displays a Virgin and Child and a figure on each side, architectural columns are the frame, beautiful figures of angels float on the top panel. The Vatican owns a bookcover very similar but claimed as three centuries earlier. The 11th century Byzantine triptych in the Paris Cabinet de Medailles is claimed to be the most beautiful specimen of extant Byzantine art. The central division has a Crucifixion with the Virgin Mary and Saint John on either side, all of the characteristic °elongated° anatomy and straight close folds of drapery; Constantine and Empress Helen are in diminutive size below. The statuettes in the Byzantine shrine from the Soltikoff collection are some of walrus tusk and some of elephantine ivory. The Russian Church would be expected to furnish numerous specimens of Byzantine ivory carving; it affords however, only a few heads of pastoral staffs, plaques and other liturgical accessories. A 16th century panagia (a fiat locket-shaped receptacle to hold the consecrated bread) of ivory in the Vatican has 10 scenes from the New Testament carved in the minutest form with great skill and producing facial expressions clearly. These surround a larger central circle containing three angels sitting at meat with Abraham. Two i thrones in the Kremlin at Moscow are of ivory. One, attributed to Constantinople (1472), is the Ivan III throne; its plaques were added and dated 16th to 17th century. The other prob ably comes from Persia and is covered with ornaments of gold and gem stones. Plaques of ivory of Hindu workmanship are on front and sides, picturing an elephant hunt amongst open interlaced work. Saint Peter's ivory chair is in the Basilica (Rome). It is a massive square structure, the low back supporting a triangular pediment. Square ivory plaques covering the surface depict the labors of Hercules and six constellations.
Ecclesiastical is to the cus tom, which dates back to very early times of the Church, of using ivory plaques (both (con sular" and (classical') for liturgical decoration that so many have survived; later, when no longer used, fortunately, these works of art were carefully preserved in the treasuries of the churches. But diptychs have palimpsests just as do manuscripts (see MANUSCRIPTS) and sepulchral brasses (see BRASSES). In these cer tain parts of a carved diptych that are not de sired are planed down and other work substi tuted. An example in the Victoria and Albert Museum, London, has all its original reliefs erased but traces remain of a consul's figure; a figure of the Saviour in 13th century Russo Byzantine is carved on the back. Another such in the Liverpool Museum has the original sub stituted by an inscription to Bishop Baldricus (10th century). The cathedral at Monza has two leaves of another.
Gothic In the 13th, 14th and 15th centuries we come across Gothic architectural effects in the carving. For liturgical purposes we meet with ivory in diptychs, triptychs, re tables or altar-pieces, pastoral staffs or croziers, shrines, statuettes, caskets, bookcovers, liturgi cal combs, portable altars, holy-water buckets (situke), flabelli (fans), rosary beads, etc. The quality of the workmanship varies considerably, the French being best. In France, the Revolu tion destroyed most pieces; in England, the Reformation. Noted extant piedes of this period are the cylindrical pyx in Saint Gereon treasury, Cologne; a 13th century casket, in the museum at Kensington, of wood overlaid with ivory plaques painted and gilt, showing Saint Felix enthroned, etc.; two fine caskets (in the latter museum), one with the figures of Christ, Saint Peter and Saint Paul in richly carved canopies of Gothic architecture. There are also polyptyches (with more than three leaves) which often form a recess in which is a statuette or group; these are termed Germany and Italy did splendid work in such pieces. Nothing of great art value in diptychs or shrines later than the 14th century has come down to us. Charming statu ettes exist of the Gothic period as found in the museums of Paris and London. The Virgin and Child is a favored subject for ivory statu ettes, the Virgin is frequently standing and has a tendency to lean over above, utilizing to the full the curve in the tusk; some are seated. Some of these are colored, even gilded. The de Bourbon" (Louvre) is very noted, it is a (Vierge ouvrante," a style in which the figure can be opened in the centre producing two doors and disclosing groups carved in the interior. The Saint George and dragon group was another favorite with ivory carvers; this is usually thus divided: there is a hillock with castles above, lower we find the kneeling prin cess praying for delivery and at base Saint George is slaying the dragon, all in full relief. The Wallace Museum, London, has one of these of the 15th century, the Salting Collection had a smaller one. The Coronation of the Virgin (Louvre) from the Soltikoff Collection is very noted, the Christ figure is said to be a portrait of Philip III, and the Virgin a likeness of Mary, daughter of Henry III. A number of °Deposition from the groups in ivory are in existence, in Byzantine and Western style, in panels as well as diptychs, triptychs and cas kets.
Secular Art in Caskets for secular use from the 13th century with carved panels and borders exist; they are frequently carved with classic subjects, as the stories of Europa, Orpheus, Pegasus, with figures of centaurs and other monsters. Noted secular caskets are in the Brussels Museum, British Museum (the casket) and that in the Brunswick Museum, with their inscription in Runic and interlaced work In the 14th century we come to the decoration depicting the era of classic romance, such as the story of King Arthur and his knights of the Round Table, and we get por trayals of the Quest of the Sangreal, Queen Guinevere, Tristan and Yseult, etc., also Chau cer's Romance of the Rose, tournaments, knights before the Castle of Love, etc. All these are reproduced in the carved ivories of this period. In the museum at Kensington is a casket with 13 panels of classic and roman tic subjects such as Castle of Love, Cupid shooting, romance of Lancelot, story of Tristan as a beggar, Fountain of Youth, etc. Numer ous 15th century Italian marriage coffers (cas sone) of bone are in the museums. Mirrors and hair combs extant show quite elaborate scenic carving. Olifants, too, belong to this period, some from the 12th century. They re tained the horn shape and were used for hunt ing horns and often for drinking from; they show profuse carving at times.