The empire being thus busily absorbed in the cultivation of learning and arts, the administra tion of the Shogunate was characterized by in action, and the military equipment began to be neglected. The 8th Shogun, Yoshimune (1716 45 ' A.D.), on assuming . administrative control, set himself to reorganize the government by introducing the Kyoho reforms. He retrieved the poverty of the whole country by the en forcement of frugality and economy, and fos tered the popular taste for martial exercise. He collected also a volume of laws, called °Hyak lca-jo, i )' commended the Dutch learning intro duced by Aoki Konyo, and encouraged industry. On the death of the Shogun Yoshimune, the political adjustment relaxed. Matsudaira Sad anobu then became the chief minister and set himself to enforce the Kwansei era reforms. Then succeeded the exceptionally prosperous eras of Bunka and Bunsei (1804-29 A.D.) during which many evil practices crept in, but a great reform took place under Midzuno Tadalcuni, in the era of Tempo (1841 A.D.).
In 1853 A.D., Commodore Perry came to Japan with his fleet. Several years before this arrival, both Russia and England had sought permission of the government to carry on trade, but without avail. As the result of various en croachments of the Russians, and the disorderly conduct of Englishmen at Nagasaki, careful measures were taken for littoral defense, and the government ordered that any foreign ship approaching the coast should be fired on. Among the Japanese, however, many who had acquired the Dutch learning spoke against such a violent policy.
On the other hand, the cry of °Loyalty to the Throne' became more and more fervent, for the people had learned how the military families of successive generations asserted their own authority at the expense of that of the Imperial House. The history of the past was
widely studied in such a painstaking work as (History of Japan) compiled by Mitsukuni of Mito and his retainers. The stud ies of national literature, pioneered by a learned group of men, headed by Mabuchi, Mato-ori Norinaga, etc., naturally stirred up still more the people's love for the emperor.
The Shogun's government, though tradition ally accustomed to the arbitrary exercise of power, was now perplexed, both by the Im perial court and the popular cry, and the neces sity of coming to some terms with America and other foreign powers was felt. Moreover, the Shogunate was disturbed by an internal trouble about the succession. At this crisis, the cour ageous Ii Naosuke (Kamon-no-kami) was ap pointed Tairo (Prime Minister), and in 1858 A.D. a temporary treaty was signed with five countries — America, England, France, Russia and Holland, and the succession problem was also settled.
The blame for having taken the audacious step of concluding a treaty without the Imperial sanction was thrown upon who, however, re solved to settle disturbance by dismissing, sending into exile or to death all opponents of his policy. Amidst such a hue and cry, Ii was attacked and killed by the Mito Ronins, and the orthe Shogunate rapidly diminished. The Mon clan of Choshu united with•the Shim azu clan of Satsuma with the common' vie* of destroying the Shogunate government. Finding himself confronted by such difficulties, YOsh inobu, the 15th and the last Shogun of the Tokugawa, acting on the advice of Yamanouchi of Tosa, resigned the office of Shogun, and re stored the administrative power to the Imperial Court in October 1867 A.D. Thus the Toku gawa Shogunate ended with a brilliant history of 265 years, and the Age of the Military Dic tatorship for 682 years came to an end.