The Inner Synagogue.—The interior archi tecture of the synagogue has been to a certain degree retained from the earliest times. The centre of the main floor is occupied by an ele vated platform, on which stands the desk, from which the lessons from the Pentateuch and the Prophets, and in some communities the regular prayers, are read. This platform is usually called Almemor, from the Arabic al-minbar, chair? or by its Talmudic name Bona, the Greek Britka, a speaker's platform. It re calls Ezra's wooden pulpit, from which he ad dressed the people (Neh. vii, 4). Directly facing the entrance from the vestibule which is usually at its western end is the Ark, termed Teba or 'box" in Talmudic phrase, but Aron in later Hebrew, a closet or niche in the wall, in which the scrolls of the Law or Pentateuch are kept, and before which a curtain is sus pended. A perpetual light is hanging in front of the Ark, symbolic of immortality. In the new American synagogues reading desk and pul pit are combined before the Ark. The olden tabernacle is thus powerfully suggested by the inner arrangement of the average modern sync• gogue with the curtain screening the Ark, like the curtain which concealed the Holy of Holies. The main floor is reserved for men and boys, the gallery, or in smaller buildings, a side room is set aside for the women. The separation of the sexes, however, has rapidly disappeared in American synagogues of the progressive school; and family pews have been introduced, while the men no longer pray with covered heads in Oriental fashion. The interior equipment of the synagogue is capable of splendid decoration. The Ark is often elaborately ornamented, and while plastic art has received little if any en couragement, carved wood or rich marbles are often employed and Mexican onyx, gold and mosaics used with fine effect. The Italian syna gogues are remarkable for their costly em broidered curtains and scroll coverings. Usu ally the walls are plain, but at times are elab orately decorated, according to the resources of the congregation, the windows being either severely simple or of richly stained glass. The tendency to-day among some of the wealthiest temples is to abandon almost wholly the tradi tional features of the synagogue in the effort to secure the acoustics, comfort and ventilation of a perfect lecture-hall or auditorium, whatever becomes of the "devotional ensemble," in which respect some churches are equally at fault.
Synagogue The highest functionary is the rabbi, which signifies "my teacher"; originally in days of national auton omy a judge and adviser in civil and criminal matters and religious questions, to-day his func tion in the United States and in centres of Western civilization, as distinguished from the Orient and Eastern lands in general, is chiefly to preach. In countries where Jewish ecclesi astical law is scrupulously followed and the traditions strictly observed, he decides on reli gious and theological matters. The reader in the synagogue is called hason, "overseer," from which comes the Christian episkopos, an official whose duty it was to ensure the correct read ing of the service. He is termed also cantor and possesses high musical abilities. The sham mash is sexton or general servant of the con gregation. The business head is called parnas, "provider," or merely president in new-fash ioned synagogues, who with the vice-president, and a number of trustees, manage the temporal interests. A useful functionary existed after the Babylonian Captivity, when the Hebrew was disappearing as the language of the people, called a methurgeman ("dragoman") or "inter preter," who used to translate into the vernac ular the lessons from the Hebrew Pentateuch. The primitive synagogue had other officials, whose duties are now relegated elsewhere. A helpful service was rendered by the 10 Bat lanim, or "men of leisure," whose presence was necessary as a legal quorum for worship. These were either people of independent means or stipendiaries of the congregation. This quorum of 10 was called Mitivan. To become a member of the synagogue, no formal sub scription to a creed is exacted; the mere fact of being an Israelite is sufficient. Each syna gogue is autonomous, although of recent dec ades unions of congregations, under various names, have been established in England, Ger many and the United States. Their functions,
however, are largely educational, and they do not interfere with the independence of any con stituent member. The synagogue is supported by seat or pew assessments and by voluntary offerings. There are never collections except for charitable or patriotic causes. Paid officials are elected by the trustees or members, for short or long terms, hut sometimes for life.
Ritual and
To describe . briefly the liturgy of the modern synagogue it is an evolution from the ritual of the primitive place of meeting, with its suggestions of the Temple service. It consists of portions from the Penta teuch and the Psalms, with certain selections, called "Amida," or "Shemone Esre," ((the 18 benedictions," and additional passages of an cient origin. With the centuries and enforced emigration from land to land, the simple ele ments in the liturgy were developed and am plified, additions were constantly made by poetasters and local rabbis, until with the ser mon the length of the service was unduly pro tracted and its solemnity disturbed. Hence of late decades condensation and elimination have taken place, while music and the mixed choir have been introduced in more progressive syna gogues of Europe and the United States. In these, too, the Hebrew has been curtailed and many portions of the service read in the ver nacular, particularly the lessons from the Penta teuch and Prophets, and the prayer for the government, whether it be kingdom, empire or republic. There is a deep vein of solemnity in the old-time liturgy, although its leitmotif is more national than individual. The atmos phere, however, is far from narrow and God is usually described not as God of the Jew alone, but of "all flesh," "all nations,* of humanity. At the same time the lesson is en forced that men are brethren and religion is a daily exercise and not a weekly parade. As the liturgy was composed at times when the spirit of persecution was most rampant, its breadth and beauty are all the more notable. It must not be imagined, however, that the synagogue was like a monastery, and its spirit ascetic and unduly rigid. It was the centre of communal activity, the meeting-place for all in terested in benevolence, education and social welfare. Here came the bridegroom, the Sab bath after his marriage. Here was brought the babe on its first outing. Here worshiped the young mother, when she recovered from illness. Here publicly prayed the orphan and the mourner when their dear ones were taken from them. Here, too, the sinner did penance — was not Uriel Acosta flogged in the Amster dam synagogue in 1633, although in "a retired corner?" There are records extant of public announcements on Saturdays in the synagogues of the results of law suits and of properties in the market. Lost articles were openly cried, and a proclamation of stolen goods was insti tuted. The moral law, both as regards commer cial honesty and domestic virtues, was publicly enforced. "Be one of the first in synagogue,' reads a quotation from a 14th century Jew in the Jewish Quarterly Review, III, p. 463, 'Do not speak during prayers, but repeat the re sponses and after the service do acts of kind ness. . . . Wash me clean, comb my hair as in my lifetime, in order that I may go clean to my eternal resting-place, just as I used to go every Sabbath evening to the Synagogue." The sermon lost its hold during the Middle Ages. The rabbi was more of a teacher than preacher, hut Jewish pulpit eloquence revived with the century of emancipation and to-day the rabbi of the best type wields influence as preacher. The olden synagogue was the first °institutional
church° and it maintains its essential character, Bibliography.— Dembitz's