The classic period of Jewish literature in mediaeval times began in the 10th century in Spain. There, under the favorable condition produced by Arabic dominion, some Jews be came powerful factors at the courts of the Caliphs, and, like their Arabic countrymen, em ployed their wealth and their influence for the patronage of literature. Such Maecenases were Hasdai ibn Shaprut (950), and Samuel Hanagid (1050). Under their influence, a systematic study of Hebrew grammar began The names of the most important authors on this subject are Dunash ibn Labrat, Menahem ben Saruk (10th century) ; who were succeeded by Ibn Ganah and Judah Hajug. Ibn Ganah wrote the first Hebrew dictionary. With such attempts, naturally, exegesis went hand in hand, and penetration into the laws of the language de veloped a finer taste for Hebrew style, and a better conception of the art of poetry than that which the former Payetanim possessed. Of the numerous exegetes of this period, Abraham ibn Esra (1092-1167) deserves to be mentioned. He not only employed his knowledge of grammar and the principle that the Bible must be ex plained from the point of view of the context, but he also claimed that the rabbinical interpre tation of scripture was not infallible, and, finally, he pointed out a number of passages in the Pentateuch which could not have been written by Moses. So he became the father of Biblical criticism. Of the Hebrew poets of this age, two deserve very prominent mention, Solomon ibn Gabirol (1022-70) and Judah Halevi (1080 1141). Both handled the Hebrew language not merely for the purposes of religious poetry, but for secular poetry, as well, and with a mastery which makes them classics, not merely of Jew ish, but of the world's literature. Judah Hal evi's (Ode on Zion' has been translated into various modern languages. During this period, the Philosophy of Religion, if we may employ this traditional term, developed to its highest perfection. (See article JEWISH PHILOSOPHICAL Warms in this section). The first to write on this topic in Spain was Bahya ibn Pakuda (11th century), whose work,
of the
emphasizes the necessity of an inner religion, as contrasted with the idea of strict ritual observance. A very popular work is the
of Judah Halevi. The most import ant development of this class of literature is the (Guide for the Perplexed,' by Moses ben Maimon (1135-1204), written like the above mentioned works in Arabic. Like them, it was translated into Hebrew, in the course of the 12th century. While this literary activity show!: a somewhat secular tendency, also evident in works on astronomy, medicine, science, etc., talmudic studies were not neglected. Mannon ides wrote a code of the Jewish law, including even the sacrificial cult, and the constitutional law for Israel's kingdom, dogma and ethics, under the title,
Jewish literature developed in France, some what later than in Spain. There were chiefly two centres, one in the south, the Provence, and one in the east, the Champagne. The oldest name of any prominence is that of Gershom, surnamed, "The Light of the Diaspora.• He wrote talmudic commentaries, and a number of decisions and hymns. In the latter part of his life he moved to Mayence, where he estab lished a new centre of Jewish spiritual activity. He died in 1028. To the school founded by him belongs the most popular of all mediaeval authors, Solomon ben Isaac of Troyes, called abbreviated from the initials of his name, Rabbi Shelomoh Izhaki (1040-1105). He
compiled the first complete the Babylonian Talmud, which from his time on was studied alongside of the text, and is printed with all talmudic editions. He further wrote commentaries on almost all books of the Bible, and his commentary on the Pentateuch, giving in simple, precise language the talmudic inter pretations of the law and the best rabbinical homilies is the most popular work of literature, being used to-day in numer ous schools and study circles. His disciples, among whom members of his own family, es pecially his two grandsons, Samuel and Jacob ben Meir, were most prominent, continued his work in commenting on the Talmud, and laid down their work in glosses, called Tosafot (ad ditions). In Germany, where studies began with the 11th century, attention was almost ex clusively given to the Talmud, besides which only religious poetry was cultivated, lacking, however, the true Inspiration of the Spanish school.
With the death of Maimonides a marked de cline occurred. With a few exceptions, exegesis degenerates into blind adherence to rabbinical authorities, philosophy becomes more and more fanciful homiletics, or gives way to theosophy, and poetry becomes punning on Biblical and tal mudic phrases. Exceptions are found in the cases of Joseph Kimhi, and his two sons, Moses and David (1150-1230), and Moses ben Nahman (1200-70) whose commentary on the Penta teuch, though as a rule very sound, shows very often leanings toward fanciful mysticism. Notable, in this period, is the work of the family of Ibn Tibbon, four generations of which were engaged in the translation of Arabic works into Hebrew, and so, alongwith others, J among whom may be mentioned Jacob Anatoli of the 13th century, helped to preserve the treasures of Greek literature, which they trans lated from Arabic into Latin. Among those who worked along the lines of Saadia for the harmonization of religion and science, mention must be made of Hasdai Crescas, author of 'The Light of the Lord,' Levi ben Gershom, author of The Wars of the Lord) (14th cen tury), and, finally, Joseph Albo (1400-40), whose work 'Ikkarim ('The Fundaments of Faith' ), is altogether dependent on Maimonides. While this decline is noticeable in the best parts of Jewish literature, there is, on the other hand, a great activity in mystic literature. The most important work of this kind is the 'Zohar> ('Brightness'). It is a theosophical explana tion of the Pentateuch, which gives itself as the work of Simeon ben Johai, a rabbi of the 2d century, but is now generally believed to have been written by a Spanish author, Moses de Leon, about 1280. The fabrications of works of this kind, attributed to the authorities of the Talmud, and even to patriarchs, became as frequent in these days as it had been in the first Christian century, when the book of EnoCh, and the Sibylline oracles were composed. The German Jews of those days confined their activ ity exclusively to Talmudic literature, and even in this line were frequently devoting them selves to the minutest details of ritual practice. A very prominent author of this day, and the founder of an important school, was Meir of Rothenburg, who is otherwise well known in Jewish history as a martyr, who spent seven years in prison, because he refused to allow his congregation to pay the ransom, for the ex action of which King Rudolf had imprisoned him (1286). Exceptions are found in Italy, where most noteworthy are the poets, Kalony mos ben Kalonyrnos and Immanuel of Rome, the latter a friend and contemporary of Dante. Another exception are some polemical works against Christianity, among which mention may be made of the Nizahon, by Lipman of Muehlhausen (14th century).