Spinoza.— In a measure Baruch Spinoza (1632-77) is to be regarded as a representative of Jewish philosophy because of the influence exerted upon him in his youthful training by Maimonides, Gersonides and Crescas, but his thought turning into the new direction given to philosophical speculation by the movement that dates from Descartes he developed a sys tem in which Judaism as a revealed religion had no part. The breaking away from scholasti cism opened up new aspects, and Spinoza takes his place in the general history of philosophy rather than in the religious philosophy of Juda ism, and this despite the fact that there are features in his system which can be directly traced to some of the Jewish philosophers of the Middle Ages. Thus it is generally agreed that Spinoza's attitude toward the problem of determinism was derived from Crescas, as like wise the emphasis he lays upon the love of God, rather than knowledge as the highest human quality. From Maimonides he appears to ob tain the view that Time arose in Creation and not the reverse. His attitude toward the ques tion of divine attributes also points to the in fluence of Jewish philosophers. His break, however, with the prevailing form of Judaism was so complete, as illustrated not merely by his excommunication but by his departure from the accepted doctrine of the Pentateuchal.Laws as a special dispensation for the Jews derived directly from the divine source through Moses, as to place him outside of the rank of Jewish philosophers. His system, however, furnishes a link between Jewish theology and the currents of the later philosophical systems like those of Leibnitz and Wolff (built up largely under the influence of Spinoza, though with an endeavor to escape from his conclusions), so that when toward the end of the 18th century the Jews once more began to take their place within the world's activities, the influence of Spinoza on specifically Jewish thought also began to make itself felt. Moses Mendelssohn, the mediator between Judaism and the external world, though a follower of Wolff's system, yet derives some of his views from Spinoza, and Solomon Mai mon, one of the ablest of the early exponents of the Kantian philosophy, passed through a period of domination of Spinozastic philosophy. Indeed from a certain point of view, Spinoza's pantheism may be regarded as the last word of Jewish religious philosophy, though it involves the discarding of the specific doctrine of the divine authority of the Old Testament. In a certain sense, Spinoza is the last Jewish philos opher. See SPINOZA.
The attitude of Mendelssohn and Maimon toward the systems prevailing in their days is typical of modern Judaism, the exponents of which are swayed, as are the exponents of Christianity, by the currents of thought arising on the basis of scientific investigations outside of the domain of religious belief — either ac cepting the modern attitude toward the prob lems of existence, or endeavoring to confront it. Whether conditions will ever arise that will
again lead to a distinctively Jewish philosophy is more than doubtful. The present tendency throughout the more intelligent religious world to seek the essence of religion in the heart and soul of man and to lay the main emphasis of the religious life upon conduct rather than upon speculation is unfavorable to the creation of such conditions, either in Judaism or in Christianity.
Bibliography.— General: Moritz Eisler, (Vorlesungen uber die Jiidischen Philosophen des Mittelalters' (Vienna 1876); J. S. ler, 'Geschichte der Philosophic des Juden thums' (Berlin 1900); Salomon Munk, Me langes de Philosophic Arabe et Juive' (Paris 1859); David Kaufmann, 'Geschichte der At tributenlehre in der Jiidischen Religionsphil osophie des Mittelalters von Saadia bis Maimunt' (Gotha 1877) ; Manuel Joel, zur Geschichte der Philosophic' (2 vols., Bres lau 1876-84); B. Beer, and Philosophische Schriftsteller der Juden' (Leip zig 1852); Schmiedel, Religionsphil osophie) (Vienna 1869).
Special: (a) Old Testament : Moritz Friedlander, 'Grieschische Philosophic im Al ten Testament) (Berlin 1904); (b) Philo: James Drummond, 'Philo J.aLvus, or the Jewish Alexandrian Philosophy in its Development and Completion). (London 1888) • (c) Saadia: J. Guttmann, 'Religionsphilosophie des Saadia' (Gottingen 1882); Wilhelm Eugelmann, 'Die Religionsphilosophie Saadia Gaons' (Miinster 1903); (d) Bachya: J. H. Hertz, 'Bachja, the Jewish Thomas a Kempis) (New York 1898); Isaac Husik, 'A History of Mediaeval Jewish Philosophy' (Philadelphia 1916) (e) Ibn Ga. birol: H. Adler, 'Ibn Gabirol and his Influence upon Scholastic Philosophy' (London 1865) ; J. Gutmann, 'Die Philosophic des Salomon Ibn Gabirol) (Gottingen 1889)(f) Judah Halevi; Hartwig Hirschfeld, 'Judah Halevi's Kitab al Khazari translated from the Arabic' (London 1905); (g) Maimonides: S. Munk, 'Le Guide des Egares' (3 vols., Paris 1858-66); Michael Friedlander, 'Guide of the Perplexed' (Lon don, 3 vols., 1881-85); Israel Abrahams, 'Mai monides' (Philadelphia 1903); (h) Gersonides: A. Weil, Philosophic Religueuse de Levi ben Gerson' (Paris 1868); (i) Crescas: Philipp Bloch, 'Die Willensfreiheit von Chasdai Kres kas' (Munich 1879); (j) Albo: Tamer, Religionsphilosophie des Joseph Albo' (Press burg 1896).