The monastic order, which, though an essential part of Buddhism, was loosely organized in earlier times, has become in Lamaism a highly developed system con trolling the entire religious life of the com munity. The monks or Lamas are very numer ous, and usually live together in monasteries, although some are hermits and others are found in the villages of the laity. The rule of celibacy is strictly observed only by the Yellow hat sect. Communities of nuns also exist, hut they are few and less highly regarded. The order has four regular grades, probationer, novice, fully ordained monk and abbot; but above these stand the "reincarnates Lamas, who are supposed to be the earthly manifestations of deities or of deceased saints. The Dalai Lama himself is regarded as the incarnation of Avalo Iciteivara, his scarcely less reverenced colleague, the head of the monastery of Tashi-lhunpo, known as the Pan-ch'en Lama, as that of Amitabha, and the other chief Lamas of Tibet, Mongolia and elsewhere, over a hundred in number, claim similar origins. The mode of succession to these dignities, as practised for the last 500 years, is a peculiar one. The spirit of the deceased Lama is supposed to become re incarnate after a few weeks or sometimes a i longer interval in an infant of marvelous birth and character. Search is made for children possessing such qualifications, and after pre liminary tests the names are drawn by lot, under the supervision of other chief Lamas, and the new Lama is thus found. Sometimes, espe cially in Mongolia, the succession is restricted to members of particular tribes or even families.
The Lamaist system is highly sacerdotal, and the ceremonies of worship are carried on by the monks, who have in their monasteries temples richly adorned and contain ing many images. The analogy between the rites of Lamaism and those of the Roman Catholic Church has often been noticed, but Christian influence, though possible, has not been defi nitely proved, since Lamaist ritual may well he a natural development from the tenets of Mahayana Buddhism. Public worship consists usually of prayers, hymns and the presentation of cakes, rice, water and other offerings to the Buddhas and the other gods. Sacred sentences,
the best known of which is the om mani padme Bum, or uJewel-lotus" formula, are repeated in private devotion with the aid of a rosary or, when printed on paper together with mystic diagrams, are inserted in the well-known pray ing wheels or used as flags. Sorcery and magic are in high repute, even among the mem bers of the reformed Yellow-hat sect, who possess an official oracle, and astrologers are often consulted. There are many religious festivals, the greatest being the feast of the conception of Gautama Buddha in the first month (February), the commemoration of his death in the fourth month, the water festival in the autumn and the festival of Saint Tsong kha-pa in the 10th month. A great mystery play is enacted toward the close of the year.
General While Lamaism in its distinctive features and as it is found in ordi nary practice presents itself to the Occidental mind as a form of polytheistic superstition in which the propitiation of fiendish powers is a chief element, the ethical side of early Bud dhism and its teachings have an ameliorating influence upon the more enlightened among the people, especially the clergy.
The sacred books of Lamaism are the Canon proper, called the 'Kah-gyur' or (Kanjur,) which is divided into 100 or sometimes 108 bulky volumes, and the Com mentaries, the or (Tanjur,> con taining 225 volumes. The former consists mainly of translations from the Sanskrit of the scriptures of the Mahayana school, and of works on the Tantra system, together with a few translations from the Pali and the Chinese; the latter form a huge collection of theological, exegetical and scientific works partly of Indian and partly of Tibetan origin. Consult analysis of the (Kanjur) made by Csoma Korosi, as trans lated and augmented by L. Feet in Antsales du Mush* Gssimet (Vol. II, pp. 131-573, 1881).
For modern accounts of Lamaism, consult Griinwedel, A., 'Mythologic des Buddhismus in Tibet und der Mongolei' (1900) ; Koppen, C. F., 'Die lamaische Hierarchic und Kirche' (1859) ; Schlagintweit, E., 'Buddhism in Tibet) (1863) ; Schulemanr., G., 'Die Geschichte der Dalailamas' (1911) ; Waddell, L. A.,