The dissatisfaction of the colonies with the exactions and abuses of the viceroys, captains general and other officials representing the Crown of Spain, jealousies between the ecreoles,a or children of Spanish parents born in America, and the or native Spaniards, commercial preference and social distinctions and other petty annoyances born of the arrogance of the Spaniards on the one hand, and the proud nature of the creoles on the other, were the smouldering embers which, fanned by the success of the American Revo lution and the storm of the French Revolu tion, set on fire the Spaniard colonies at the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th century. The majority of the Spanish-Ameri can countries attained their independence be tween 1804 and 1825, and their struggles for freedom, while encouraged by the example of the United States, were inspired by French ideals. The heroes of the bloody but romantic French Revolution, their fiery speeches and fearlessness, their proclamation of the repub lic and the rights of man; the echoes of the Boston Tea Party, the exploits of the spirit of '76, the commanding and serene figure of Washington, the adoption of the American Constitution, the utterances of the grave think ers and inspired orators of the Revolutionary period — all these dazzling examples of patriot ism appealed to the Spanish-American colo nists, and one by one the colonies began their fight for independence.. The executions and ignominy which were the lot of the first patriots who forfeited their lives for the cause of independence, instead of discouraging the leaders, made them more aggressive, and they resolved to gain the day at all hazards.
On the most brilliant pages of the history of Latin America are written, among the names of other heroes, those of Miranda of Ven ezuela, the precursor of South American inde pendence; Bolivar, who has been called the Washington of South America, a born leader, the liberator and father of Venezuela, his na tive country, and of Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia; Sucre, also a Venezuelan, more like Washington than was Bolivar; San Mar tin, the great general of Argentina, the brave and heroic liberator of the southern half of South America; Artigas of Uruguay, a man of sterling qualities; O'Higgins, the great Chilean hero; Tiradentes, the forerunner of Brazilian independence; Morelos and Hidalgo in Mex ico, both Catholic priests, and both martyrs to the cause of independence; and scores of others from each country whose names would he meaningless except to those well acquainted with the history of South America.
Once free from colonial bondage, the new republics, whose political constitutions in the main are based on that of the United States, had to deal with fresh problems arising from changed conditions. The new political entities commenced their independent life heavily handicapped, on the one hand by their eco nomic condition after a period of protracted wars, and on the other hand by a scarcity of population. The unbounded productiveness of Latin America, coupled with the modest wants of the masses, has been the main cause of the slow development of most of these countries as manufacturing centres, their chief means of support being agricultural and allied industries and mining. The evolution out of all this
chaos has been more rapid in some countries than in others, due to special conditions, among which the principal ones are geographic and topographic position and predominance of the white man.
The leading classes, owners of black slaves and landlords to the Indian tenantry, lived for the most part in relative ease after the war of independence. Those who did not seek in the army a field for their activities or inclinations devoted themselves to intellectual and scientific pursuits, either in civil life or in the service of the Church. Some went abroad, to France or Spain preferably, to acquire a general educa tion or to perfect that received at home and to see the world, and on their return bringing new ideas which were eventually adopted and modified as necessity demanded. With the progress of the 19th century Latin America also advanced.
Intellectually, there is no difference between the Latin-Americans and the Anglo-Americans. The literature of Latin America (q.v.) is as rich and valuable as that of any country, yet it is hardly known — not to say entirely un known—in the United States except by a handful of men who have devoted their time to the study of the Spanish language. It is only during the last few years that a desire to learn Spanish has made itself felt in the United States, and it is most gratifying to note the number of persons now able to read and understand the language and their growing familiarity with things Latin-American. On the other hand, the study of modern languages is compulsory in all of the universities and colleges of Latin America, and absolutely neces sary to obtain certain academic degrees. French was for a long time the language chosen by the majority of the students, hence the influence of French literature and French thought in Latin America. German was taken up by many, more as a commercial tongue than otherwise. English was preferred by others, rather as an accomplishment than as a lan guage of immediate practical use, but now it has taken, in many cases, the place of Ger man. These two languages have followed the trend of trade, but English is becoming more useful every day in view of the increased re lations of Latin America with the United States, in all spheres of human activity.
The problem of education has always com manded the earnest attention of all the Latin American governments, to the extent of having made primary education not only free but compulsory. So far as higher education is concerned — that is, all grades above primary — there are institutions, either public or pri vate, or both, for secondary and superior edu cation, normal schools, schools of mines, agri cultural and manual training, technological in stitutes, colleges, universities, conservatories of music, academies of painting and sculpture, national or public libraries, museums, etc.—in short, all kinds of institutions devoted to the moral and intellectual uplift of the people.