Each State has control over its own system of local government, which is determined in part by the State constitution and more largely by detailed statutory. legislation, with no clear distinction between State laws of general in terest and those dealing with local affairs. At the same time these laws are largely adminis tered by locally elected officials; and many State constitutions provide for the local elec tion of county officers. Legislative control is also limited in many States by constitutional provisions prohibiting and restricting special legislation; and in some of the Central and Western States cities have authority to adopt their own charters of local government. On the other hand, there are now State officials with powers of administrative supervision over local officers in the fields of education, chari ties, public health, public utilities and finances; and in these and other lines there has developed a considerable amount of direct State adminis tration. These tendencies toward a more cen tralized administration are, however, still far behind the conditions in continental Europe, or even in England. There is need for further changes so as to develop a more coherent policy of local government.
Local Organization.— In the organization of local institutions it is important to note: (1) The degree of concentration or division of authority in the several local districts; and (2) the professional or non-professional character of local officials.
Local powers in England are almost uni formly vested in elected councils of unpaid members, such as the county council, the bor ough council and the urban or rural district council. These councils act largely by means of committees of their own members; and the chairman or mayor is merely the presiding of ficer. Subordinate to the council are perma nent expert officials.
In France there is also a series of popu larly elected councils in each local district, with financial and local legislative powers. But the executive authority of each district is vested in a single official—as the appointed prefects of the departments, and the mayors of com munes elected by the communal councils. The prefects are a class of professional officials; but the mayors are not usually trained. Under these are subordinate experts for the various branches of administration.
German local organization is more compli cated; it includes elected local councils and trained profesSional experts; but the latter have more independent authority and larger in fluence than in France or England. The may ors of cities, as well as the chief executive of ficers in the provinces, districts and circles, are professional officers. Much use is made of ad ministrative boards, composed of professional and non-professional members, in contrast with the single-headed executive authority in France.
In the United States there is a wide variety in the forms of local organization. County government is divided between a series of elected officials, with no common superior, and an elected board of commissioners or super visors— the latter in most States a small body elected at large, but in some States a larger body elected by towns or districts. New Eng land town government has a similar unconcen trated 'organization; but in some of the Central States the town supervisor or trustee is the head officer. Cities formerly had a similarly loosely organized government; but in recent years there have been marked tendencies to ward a more concentrated organization. In
many places this has been brought about by in creasing the power of the elected mayor; in many others by placing the city government in charge of a small commission of three or five elected members; while the latest plan provides for the election of a small council, which chooses a city manager as the chief executive officer. Civil service laws have also secured a better trained and more permanent subordinate service.
The method of electing a large number of officials by popular vote for short terms has hindered the development of a professional ex pert service; and as a result local administra tion has been extremely inefficient. The more recent tendencies in city government toward a more concentrated organization have been accompanied by an increase in the class of trained officials. But local government in the United States remains more loosely organized and with a larger proportion of untrained of ficials than in any other of the countries here noted.
Popular Control.— The general tendency in all governments since the end of the 18th century has been toward an increase of popular control by the extension of the elective fran chise. This has reached its maximum in the United States, where the prevailing system is one of the general manhood suffrage, with short residence qualifications. In a consider able number of States women also have the right to vote — and in some States where women do not vote in all elections, they may do so in some local elections. In the Southern States, however, the negro vote has been prac tically eliminated. But the numerous elections and long lists of elective officials have hindered the effective exercise of popular control, and the real power is often in the hands of party and other political organizations.
France also has manhood suffrage in local elections. In England local councils are elected under a widely extended suffrage, including women but excluding the floating population. In Germany the suffrage for local elections has been more restricted: in Prussia all tax payers could vote; but the voters were grouped in classes based on the amount of taxes paid, and this placed the effective control in the hands of the well-to-do classes.
To sum up, local government in the United States is the most democratic in form, and the most loosely organized, makes the least use of trained officials and has the maximum of administrative decentralization; but is subject to a large degree of State legisla tive control. English government is demo cratic and has a more concentrated organization, more trained officials and a considerable de gree of central administrative supervision. In France, local government is democratic, but has a highly concentrated executive organiza tion, expert officials and the highest degree of administrative centralization. The Prussian system has had the least popular control of any important country, a complicated organiza tion, a large degree of central administrative control and the most highly trained, expert pro fessional officials.
Bibliography.—Ashley, P., 'Local and Cen tral Government' ; Fairlie, J. A., 'Local Gov ernment in Towns and Villages' Goodnow, F. of Constitutional Government' (chs. 23, 24, 25).