3. The Byzantine In the Hel lenistic speaking parts of the Byzantine Em pire, the traditions of ancient Greece held sway; although iconoclasm interfered for a while with the progress of miniature painting, and Syriac influences were strong. Previous to the destructive vandalism of the iconoclasts, Byzantine miniaturists beautified the great 6th century purple parchment, Biblical codices: L, Vienna Genesis, silver letters; N, Cod. Pur Pureus, silver letters, Gospels, most of manu script at Petrograd; Z, Cod. Rossanensis, sil ver letters, Matthew and Mark, at Rossano, in Calabria; Zb, Cod. Sinopensis, gold letters, Matthew, in the Bibliotheque Nationale de Paris; 4', Cod. Beratinus, Matthew and Mark, at Berat, Albania. These illuminated manu scripts contain Biblical scenes, the bearded face of the Christ, etc.,— all in miniature. To this period of Byzantine illumination belongs the 'Roll of Joshua,' 11 yards long, at the Vatican, which pictures the story of the great leader; and the manuscript of Dioscorides, at Vienna, 472 A.D., containing portraits of physicians that were copied from originals. All this early By zantine illumination was along broad lines, free from stereotyped forms,— save the hieratic and fixed faces,— classic in artistic merit, brilliant in coloring, and profusely decorated with gold.
Iconoclasm during the 8th and 9th centuries wrought havoc to the art of illumination in the Byzantine Empire. Precious manuscripts were recklessly destroyed or ruthlessly mutilated. The artists of the iconoclastic period substituted ornamentation for miniature; flora, fauna and geometric forms for figure-painting. An in stance of their work is the 'Evangeliary' at Bibliotheque Nationale de Paris, Gr. 631. The triumph of image-worship, 842 A.D., brought about a return to the painting of figures. The 10th to the 12th centuries were the mostglorious period of Byzantti,! miniaturists. About 40 years after the rc :oration of image-worshin. the 'Sermons of Gregory of Nazianzen' (Bibliotheque Nationale de Paris, Gr. 510), 880 c. A.D., were executed, and embellished by a series of large, beautiful miniatures. The 'Paris Psalter,' dating from the 10th century (Bibliotheque Nationale de Paris, Gr. 139), has scenes of the life of David, reproduced from 3d or 4th century models, that vie with the frescoes of Pompeii in freshness and brilliancy. The 'Homilies of Saint John Paris, a manuscript which belonged to Nicephorus III (1078-81 A.D.) is likewise a good eicittnPle of Byzantine illumination at its maturity. The Psalter and the Menologion, a brief sketch of the lives of the saints for each day, were at this time most frequently decorated, e 'Vatican Psalter' (1059 A.D.), in the ' Library; and the Menologion of Basil, III: 1025 A.D.) in the Vatican, are rich in .?1,7t,- tures of brilliant coloring. Here shou be mentioned the Slavic school of illup*iajpn. It was Byzantine at first; and gave 'Chloudov Psalter,' 9th century, at Moscow. Between the 12th and 16th centuries, a national style appeared, which is characteristic of many of the numerous and richly illumined manu scripts of the libraries and museums of Petro grad and Moscow.
IL Illumination in the West. I. Early Italian.— As manuscript writing, so illumina tion began in the East, and was thence taken over by the West. Pliny, (Historia Naturalis' (xxv, 8) is witness to miniature-painting in Rome during the 1st century s.c. Martial (xiv, 1865) speaks of a parchment containing a portrait of 'Virgil. Varro had some 700 such miniature portraits. The most ancient illumi nated manuscripts probably of western prov enance are: the fragmentary 3d cen tury, Ambrosian Library, Milan; the Vatican Virgil, the Vatican 4th century, Vat. Lat. 3225, with 50 miniatures; the
(Codex Romanus,' another Vatican Virgil. Here be it noted that Latin illuminators gave us the word miniature, — from the Latin minium, which means red lead or cinnabar,— the vivid red lead oxide used as a pigment. Hence also is minare, to paint in miniature; together with oniniator, the miniature-painter. Early Italian illumination is not very well known to the historian of art. Byzantine art reacted on Italian; and this reaction is marked in mosaics, early Italian painting, and the earliest illumina tion of manuscripts in southern and central Italy. Through Italy, the East influenced the illuminators of the Frankish Empire.
2. Celtic Illumination, It was during this period of decline of illumination in the West that the Irish school, as early as the 7th cen tury, broke completely away from the copying of ancient models and inaugurated its own style of book-ornamentation. The individuality of the artists, the civilization and character of their race, were expressed in an art that reached the very height of perfection and made its influence felt in continental Europe. The Celtic initials, margins, and full-page designs are easily recognized by their great intricacy of interlacing spirals, zigzags, and ribbons, that entangle animal and human shaped fancies, knots, and other designs,—all executed with a marvelous precision of mathematical accu racy, graceful delineation, delicate touch, brilliant coloring, and most fecund imagina tion. Irish illumination is decidedly orien tal in conception and execution; and seems to point back to the ancient civilization of the race, before the Celtic migration from the steppes of Asia, across Asia Minor; by way of Austria, Switzerland, Spain and France. No trace is found of classic influ ences. Foliage is absent. Kinship with the sculpture on stone and jewels in barbaric Ire land is marked. The wonderful decorative schemes are more like to the Arabic than to any other; and the human form is depicted with a geometrical symmetry that is charac teristic of Coptic workmanship. The finest ex ample of Celtic illumination is in Q, (Codex Kenanensis,' the Book of Kells, 8th century, Vulgate Gospels, in Trinity College, Dublin. Its pages are replete with brilliant, exquisite designs, testifying to a minuteness and delicacy of precision that are a marvel to art critics. The Celtic art of illumination reached Iona through Saint Columba's foundation there; and the monks of Iona (635 A.D.) brought their faith and their art to Lindisfarne, or Holy Isle, off the Northumbrian coast. Here was executed in Celtic style the Gos pels,' 8th century, now in the Cottonian collec tion of the British Museum. Other fine works of the Celtic school of illuminators are the (Book of Deir' ; A, Codex Sangallensis, 9th or 10th century, Gospels in Greek and Latin, at Saint Gall, Switzerland. In England, the Celtic school of illumination dominated, although manuscripts brought by Saint Augustine from Rome introduced a classic influence. The 'Utrecht Psalter' (800 A.D.) is representative of the Celtic style in transition. It shows crude attempts at drapery effects. In Anglo Saxon miniatures, frames of foliage and flut tering draperies become characteristic. The (lienedictionale> of the see of Devonshire is the most elaborate specimen of 10th century Anglo-Saxon miniatures. The Norman Con quest saved Anglo-Saxon illumination from the fantastic exaggerations into which it was sinking.