From 1793 to 1796 the country was greatly agitated over the relation of the United States toward France, and on the outbreak of war be tween France and England the President issued a neutrality proclamation to the great disgust of the French, who had expected active friendship from the United States. Although both coun tries interfered shamefully with American com merce, popular sentiment an 1 the Republican party sided with France. In 1794 Madison, sup ported by Jefferson, introduced a bill demanding retaliatory measures against Great Britain, and a temporary embargo was laid on British com merce. The signing of the Jay treaty by the President was a signal for an outburst of popu lar indignation, and Madison, as leader of the opposition in Congress, opposed the appropria tion of money to carry out the terms of the treaty. In 1797 Madison retired and enjoyed for a short while the pleasures of private life. A year later he was aroused to activity by the passage of the unpopular Alien and Sedition Acts. The Virginia resolutions written by Madison denounced these laws and declared that in case of a dangerous exercise by the Federal government of powers not granted by the com pact the States had the right to interfere. These resolutions still further emphasized the position of the Republican party and pledged it to the support of States' rights. The year 1801 brought an overwhelming defeat to the Federal ists; Jefferson was inaugurated President and Madison became Secretary of State. He was thoroughly in sympathy with the President's views and shared the popularity of that brilliant administration. The last years of Jefferson's second term were clouded by the insulting ac tions of England and France with reference to the American navy. The orders of the British and the decrees of Napoleon concerning the seizure of neutral vessels were ruining Amer ican commerce. Vessels were seized by the English and by the French, American seamen were impressed and ports blockaded. Jefferson was opposed to war in his efforts to coerce France and England by commercial restrictions he induced Congress to lay an embargo on Brit ish trade. Instead of injuring England this seriously crippled American commerce and was soon repealed. In this troubled condition of affairs Madison became President in 1809. Like Jefferson he was opposed to war and tried di plomacy. He attempted through Erskine, the British envoy, to have the British Orders in Council withdrawn. Erskine agreed, but the
British government repudiated the action of its envoy. Negotiations with another British Min ister, James Jackson, were also fruitless. Con tinued insults were heaped upon American ships and men; the country demanded definite action against the aggressors; even the peace-loving President, weary of the offensive attitude of England, at last gave his consent to war. On the 18th of June 1812 war was declared and continued with varying success until the Peace of Ghent in 1814. After nearly three years of fighting, after ruinous loss of money and prop erty, the country was practically just where it stood in 1812, "its boundary unchanged, its international rights still undefined, the people still divided? Madison lacked vigor as a war President, nor had he sufficient determination to secure advantageous terms of peace. He was far greater as a framer of the Constitution than as an executive.
In 1817 Madison retired from office and set tled on his estates of Montpelier. He had mar ried in 1796 Mrs. Todd, afterward the cele brated Dolly Madison, and with her he enjoyed 20 peaceful years in his country home. He was interested in farming, he thought and wrote much on all topics of public interest. He dis cussed social and moral questions, slavery and education. °Education," he maintained, "was the true foundation of civil liberty? The last public appearance of the venerable statesman was in the Virginia Convention of 1829 which met to amend the State constitution. In char acter Madison was thoughtful, reserved and cautious; in a time of hard drinkers he was notably abstemious. Moderation characterized all his habits. Dignified and kindly and an excellent conversationalist among those he knew well, he made and retained warm friends. His knowledge was profound and accurate, and he was considered an authority on all constitutional matters. His literary style was labored, but his arguments were keen, comprehensive and con vincing.
Consult Lives of Madison by J. Q. Adams (1850) ; Rives (1859-68) ; Gay (1884) ; also