MANUAL TRAINING, As an educa tional term, manual training includes all hand work used as a means in general education. It differs from trade education through the ap prenticeship system in that it emphasizes the educational element rather than the commercial or industrial element. This thand-training,I) however, differs from education in its broader meaning, in that it emphasizes manual skill, and makes such by-products as judgment, accuracy, habits of observation, language, etc., more or less important incidents in the results to be at tained. The more recent development of voca tional training has tended to cast doubt upon the validity of manual training as a part of edu cation, while the advocates of the traditional features of education — literature, history, mathematics, science, philosophy,— have never admitted it to a place in their educational scheme. The term has therefore become re stricted to those forms of handwork which are used as agencies in general education as distinct from trade and industrial education. The manual training advocates continue to hold that habits of accuracy, judgment and observa tion and sincerity, formed through manual ac tivities, will contribute to these same mental habits as permanent life characteristics. In this they return under peculiar circumstances to the doctrine of formal discipline, approaching the matter in reverse order from the early devotees to this doctrine. Nevertheless it is on 'this the ory that manual training is now holding its place in American public education. When it surrenders this position it must become prevoca tional or vocational training.
History of Manual Finland holds the honor of the earliest use of handwork as an agency in education. Between 1858 and 1866 a plan was developed for teaching hand work in the primary schools, and for training handwork teachers for the public schools.
Sweden established handwork as a part of its educational system in 1872. This included carpentry, wood-turning, wood-carving, coopers' work, book-binding, etc., activities selected from the Hus Slojd occupations from which we have the well-known gSloyd Work.''' Sweden was concerned with the physical health of its people as well as the passing of the old system of house industries. It was hoped that this manual work
would invigorate the physical and moral health of the people who lived under artificial city con ditions; and that industry would be stimulated by a wide diffusion of manual skill. The Swed ish nation has now made handwork an integral part of its public school program and has thus laid a broad and sure foundation for the excel lent technical and trade schools above.
France adopted handwork in 1873 in the Ecole Salicis, and in 1882 made such work com pulsory in all elementary schools. From its very beginning drawing has been emphasized and mathematics has been a closely related sub ject. Because of this academic work the French have drawn the regular teacher into this handwork movement side by side with a trade teacher who gives the practical work. This re lationship between the academic teacher and the trade-teacher has been adopted by other coun tries and has apparently proved its usefulness.
England opened its first handwork classes in 1886 and to-day all the large centres of popu lation require such work in their schools. The government awards special financial grants to municipalities who give manual training to boys and girls of 11 years and older.
Germany has long emphasized manual in struction for the artisan classes in her popula tion but her emphasis has been on trade or vocational features. Skill of hand has been the purpose, rather than such moral qualities as were sought, for example, by the Swedish sys tem. As a consequence Germany developed trade and occupation schools, rather than man ual training courses in the "real-schulex.* The Gymnasia of course give no training in hand work. In fact, there has been no general scheme adopted by any considerable portion of Germany. This is probably due to the fact that trade and occupational training were efficiently carried on. Recently, since 1887, some schools have adopted typical manual training courses, and the Manual Training Seminary at Lei* is the principal source of manual training tend ers within the Empire.