MAGIC, or BLACK ART, was formerly the means of producing supernatural effects with the assistance of evil spirits. Doubtless in very remote time magic and religion were practically one, but the development of mental ity brought about a differentiation. The funda mental fact was a strong belief in what was considered supernatural. Magic is of a more positive nature, but it carries with it the idea of taboo (q.v.). Supernatural effects were at an early period naturally associated with the exercise of the healing art. In the rudest stage of society this was confined to the women, and naturally arrived at the dignity of a profession in the hands of the older, whon1 experience had gifted with superior skill. As their art was for the most part a mystery to themselves, they gradually came to be regarded as objects of fear as much as of hope, and magic medicines became synonymous with poison. The sorceress, poisoner and witch were in time reck oned identical. (See WITCHCRAFT). Mediea, Persia and the neighboring countries, famous for their knowledge of astronomy and astrol ogy, are described as the chief seats of the ancient Magi, whose doctrine seems to be, in part, of great antiquity. This doctrine repre sented opposition or strife as the parent and original cause of all things. After the opposi tion between light and darkness, Ormuzd and Ahriman, was established, the whole series of finite beings, the whole sensual world, pro ceeded from this constant struggle of light and darkness, good and evil. The change of day and night, light and darkness, the whole series of ages, time itself, is only a consequence of this struggle, in which sometimes light, some times darkness, appears victorious, until finally light shall conquer for ever. If all finite things stand under the influence of preserving and de stroying powers in nature, it is clear that he who could master these powers could dispose at his pleasure of the things subject to them; and the doctrine of the Magians was that by prayer and a true knowledge of those laws of opposition, love and hatred, light and darkness, such power could be obtained; and that thus also it was possible to pry into futurity. But
it was believed that as the world became sinful the light of the ancient doctrine of the Magi was obscured, and those who bore the name be came at last only evil-disposed sorcerers. One important branch of their art was now the ex citement of love by potions and enchantments. Their love-potions consisted partly of ingre dients which are still known to the physicians as stimulants, partly of parts of animals who had died longing for food or air, or the saliva of hungry dogs, and other still more disgust ing substances. Magic at this period also oc cupied itself with fortune-telling, calling up the dead and bewitching by the look — a super stition which we find existing in the processes against witches in modern times. It can hardly be doubted that the art of the ancient magicians was founded to a considerable degree upon a knowledge of the powers of nature superior to that of the general public. At one time magic was greatly studied in Europe, and many dis tinguished names are found among its students and professors. The most famous of these are Albertus Magnus, Roger Bacon, Cornelius Agrippa, Michael Nostradamus, John Dee, Wil ham Lilly, etc. While magic is a thing of the past there are still many survivals to be found to-day among the superstitions held by a large number of individuals. Consult Constant, A. L., (History of Magic' (trans. by Waite, Phila delphia 1914) ; Ennemoser, 'History of Magic> ; Lang, A., (Magic and Religion> (New York 1901) ; Scott, 'Demonology and Witchcraft> ; Mackay, 'Memoirs of Extraordinary Popular Delusions' ; Regnault, 'La Sorcellerie, ses Rap ports avec les Sciences biologiques> (1897) ; Lehmann, and Zauberei> (1898).